Safety measures when using climbing ropes and knots
The use of climbing ropes when moving on rocks requires the use of various knots that differ in knitting methods and purpose. Every mountain climber should be fluent in the technique of knitting knots, be able to apply them in necessary cases.
The improvement of knots is a constant trend in the long history of world mountaineering. In connection with a significant improvement in the material base and mountain climbing techniques, these issues have become increasingly important in recent years. A number of authors in their works consider the types of knots, the technique of their knitting and application, the properties of various knots.
In our opinion, the choice of types of knots cannot be a random matter, it should be made taking into account mainly their applicability in practice, safety (strength, no danger of self-loosening and tightening, ease of use), ease of tying. Our studies (M. Minev, B. Marinov, 1961 - 1968) are devoted to the physical and mechanical properties of rope knots made of synthetic materials in various conditions, types of nodes, their reliability and the degree of use by climbers of different qualifications. Based on the research, we have proposed nodes that, in our opinion, should be studied for practical application.
The studies were carried out according to the following methodology. We carried out strength tests using a special Amsler machine, which gives a load of 10 tons. In all tests for the strength of ropes and knots, the loads were given static (gradually), with the same and uniform rate of increase - 10 kg / s. The main strength characteristics are shown in table. 43. The three different kinds of ropes tested were new and naturally dry; the air temperature was plus 20°C.
Table 43
Physical and mechanical properties of climbing ropes in various conditions
| A series of experiments | Type and section of ropes | Explosive strengthening, kg | Elongation at break, % | Strength compared to Series I, % | Elongation compared to Series I, % |
| I - dry rope, t= +20° | 1620 | 38,0 | 100 | 100 | |
| 14 mm braided | 1700 | 41,0 | 100 | 100 | |
| 10 mm trigger | 810 | 38,3 | 100 | 100 | |
| II - wet rope, t== +20° | 12 mm, braided straight fibers | 1560 | 39,5 | 96,5 | 101 |
| 14 mm braided | 1650 | 42,2 | 97,4 | 103 | |
| 10 mm trigger | 785 | 39,0 | 97,0 | 102 | |
| III - frozen, wet rope, t = - 30° | 12 mm, braided straight fibers | 1170 | 27,0 | 72,4 | 71,0 |
| 14 mm braided | 1180 | 32,2 | 69,6 | 78,8 | |
| 10 mm trigger | 590 | 27,1 | 72,9 | 71,0 |
For all types of ropes and knots, three series of studies were carried out, consisting of four breaking loads. Each series had the task of obtaining data on the physical and mechanical properties of ropes and knots under conditions that are often encountered in climbing practice. For example, Series I was carried out in favorable conditions, close to summer climbing rocks (air temperature plus 20°, low relative humidity and, of course, dry rope). Series II was close to the conditions of summer ascents in rainy weather (air temperature plus 20°, but the rope was taken wet: before that it had been in a bathtub with water for 2 hours). Series III contained the main elements of the conditions of winter ascents (the rope lay for 12 hours in a refrigerator at a temperature of minus 30 °, and before that it was in a bath with water for 2 hours).
Experiments to study the physical and mechanical properties of climbers' harnesses were carried out under conditions close to the actual climbing conditions. To this end, the rope loop formed after the knot was hung on two supports of one tensioning mechanism of the machine, and the long working end of the rope went to another tensioning mechanism. During tension, the angle of the binding loop with respect to the knot point was kept at 30°.
To eliminate the influence of possible objective factors, when testing the strength of knots for tying two ropes, we used the ends of the same rope. During these experiments, we kept the same distance between the tensioning mechanisms of the machine (the length of the rope is 40 cm, Fig. 19).
Rice. 19. Tying knot and control sample of the main rope on the testing machine
In addition to the described experiments, we conducted observations on 240 novice climbers and more than 460 participants in the republican technical review and alpiniades in various mountain ranges.
We also conducted an anonymous survey of 100 climbers of various sports qualifications. They were asked the question: “Which nodes do you use most often when climbing and why?”
The research results show (see Table 43) that wetting (water impregnation) of a rope under normal temperature conditions has little effect on its elongation: that is, it stretches a little more during a tensile test, and the tensile strength decreases slightly. This can be explained by a decrease in mutual friction between the fibers in a wet rope, as a result of which the rupture of individual fibers occurs unevenly.
The strength and stretch of a frozen, water-soaked rope is greatly reduced. The reason lies mainly in the inherent fragility of synthetic materials and the presence of ice-crystal structures between the fibers of the rope.
Tracing the effects caused by wetting and freezing of the ropes makes it possible to understand the “behavior” of the knots tied on these ropes. The results of studies of the physical and mechanical properties of knots made on various types of ropes are given in Table. 44. They point to changes in the qualities of the tested knots in certain series, characterizing various climbing conditions.
Table 44
Physical and mechanical properties of knots tied on ropes under various conditions of temperature and humidity
| Knots | Show- bodies |
I series - dry rope, t = +20° | II series - wet rope, t= +20° | Series III - frozen wet rope, t = -30° | ||||||
| 12 mm, braided straight fibers | 14 mm braided | 10 mm trigger | 12 mm, braided straight fibers | 14 mm braided | 10 mm trigger | 12 mm, braided straight fibers | 14 mm braided | 10 mm trigger | ||
| Bowline | kg | 1310 | 1345 | 655 | 1265 | 1305 | 630 | 915 | 920 | 425 |
| % of series I | 100 | 100 | 100 | 96,6 | 97,0 | 96,3 | 69,9 | 68,5 | 72,5 | |
| % of ropes without a knot | 81,0 | 79,1 | 81,0 | 78,1 | 76,9 | 77,8 | 56,6 | 54,1 | 58,6 | |
| double bowline | kg | 1340 | 1360 | 670 | 1285 | 1335 | 650 | 950 | 930 | 490 |
| % of series I | 100 | 100 | 100 | 96,2 | 98,2 | 97,0 | 71,1 | 68,5 | 73,2 | |
| % of ropes without a knot | 82,7 | 80,0 | 82,8 | 79,6 | 78,6 | 80,6 | 58,7 | 54,7 | 60,5 | |
| Explorer | kg | 1305 | 1330 | 640 | 1266 | 1300 | 615 | 900 | 895 | 465 |
| % of series I | 100 | 100 | 100 | 97,0 | 97,8 | 96,3 | 69,1 | 67,4 | 73,2 | |
| % of ropes without a knot | 80,7 | 78,3 | 79,1 | 78,3 | 76,5 | 75,9 | 55,7 | 52,2 | 57,3 | |
| Weaving | kg | 1240 | 1310 | 593 | 1200 | 1270 | 570 | 875 | 910 | 430 |
| % of series I | 100 | 100 | 100 | 96,8 | 97,0 | 96,3 | 70,6 | 69,6 | 72,6 | |
| % of ropes without a knot | 76,6 | 77,0 | 73,4 | 74,1 | 74,8 | 70,4 | 54,1 | 53,5 | 53,1 | |
| Reef of the same section | kg | 1286 | 1315 | 605 | 1260 | 1290 | 590 | 925 | 910 | 445 |
| % of series I | 100 | 100 | 100 | 98,1 | 98,1 | 97,5 | 72,0 | 69,3 | 73,5 | |
| % of ropes without a knot | 79,5 | 77,4 | 74,8 | 77,8 | 75,9 | 72,9 | 57,2 | 53,5 | 54,9 | |
| Reef different section | kg | 580 | 565 | - | 575 | 560 | - | 430 | 415 | - |
| % of series I | 100 | 100 | - | 99,0 | 99,1 | - | 74,2 | 73,5 | - | |
| % of ropes without a knot | 71,5 | 69,7 | - | 71,0 | 69,1 | - | 53,1 | 51,2 | - | |
| double reef | kg | 1295 | 1320 | 615 | 1290 | 1260 | 590 | 940 | 935 | 455 |
| % of series I | 100 | 100 | 100 | 99,6 | 95,5 | 96,0 | 72,7 | 70,9 | - | |
| % of ropes without a knot | 80,0 | 77,6 | 76,0 | 79,6 | 74,1 | 70,4 | 58,1 | 55,0 | 56,1 | |
| Bram- clew of the same section |
kg | 1265 | 1320 | 600 | 1320 | 1285 | 585 | 910 | 925 | 440 |
| % of series I | 100 | 100 | 100 | 97,3 | 97,5 | 97,5 | 72,0 | 70,1 | 74,0 | |
| % of ropes without a knot | 78,1 | 77,6 | 74,2 | 76,0 | 75,6 | 72,2 | 56,2 | 54,5 | 54,3 | |
| Bram- clew of different section |
kg | 545 | 550 | - | 525 | 540 | - | 430 | 435 | - |
| % of series I | 100 | 100 | - | 96,5 | 98,2 | - | 79,0 | 79,1 | - | |
| % of ropes without a knot | 67,3 | 67,8 | - | 64,8 | 66,6 | - | 53,1 | 53,1 | - | |
| Grips- waving |
kg | 595 | 560 | - | 570 | 545 | - | 430 | 440 | - |
| % of series I | 100 | 100 | - | 95,8 | 97,5 | - | 72.3 | 78.6 | - | |
| % of ropes without a knot | 73,5 | 69,1 | - | 70,4 | 67,3 | - | 53,1 | 54,3 | - | |
| When the rope is bent in the carabiner at an angle of 180° | kg | 1325 | 1390 | 662 | 1285 | 1335 | 645 | 915 | 915 | 480 |
| % of series I | 100 | 100 | 100 | 97,0 | 96,1 | 97,5 | 69,1 | 65,9 | 75,2 | |
| % of ropes without a knot | 81,9 | 81,8 | 81,8 | 79,4 | 78,5 | 79,6 | 56,6 | 53,9 | 59,2 | |
In comparison with knots tied on a dry rope at a temperature of plus 20 ° and low air humidity (I series of experiments), knots that were 2 hours in water (II series) decreased their strength. So, bowline loses from 3 to 3.7% of strength, double bowline - from 1.4 to 4%, conductor - from 2.2 to 3.7%, reef - from 1.9 to 2.5%, double reef - from 0.4 to 4.5%, weaving - from 3 to 3.7%, bramshkot, tied from ropes of different sections - from 1.8 to 3.5% and the same section - from 2.5 to 2, 7%, grasping - from 2.5 to 4.2%. Expressed in absolute terms - kilograms, the decrease in the strength of knots tied on wet ropes is on average 15 - 50 kg, which is practically not of decisive importance for the safety of climbers.
Serious changes in the physical and mechanical properties and especially the strength of the nodes were observed in the third series of experiments, after they were 2 hours in water, and then at a temperature of minus 30 ° - in the refrigerator. Our data show that knots tied on a wet, frozen rope (at a temperature of -30°C) noticeably lose strength compared to knots on dry and wet ropes. So, the bowline reduces strength by 27.5 - 31.5%, double bowline - by 26.8 - 31.5%, conductor - by 27.3 - 29.1%, bramshkotovy, connected from ropes of different sections - by 21%, and from ropes of the same section - by 26 - 29.9%, grasping - by 21.4 - 27.7%.
Such a decrease in the strength of knots tied on a frozen rope, which reaches 450 kg in absolute terms, must be considered major change their physical and mechanical properties. It exceeds in absolute terms the overall strength of some knots (grasping, bramshkotovyh), tied from ropes of various thicknesses. These data characterizing the physical and mechanical properties of knots and ropes exposed to rain and low temperatures are of great importance for climbing practice, especially for winter ascents, and should be taken into account by climbers.
Results interesting for practice were obtained when comparing the strength indicators of knots and the rope itself on which they were tied (see Table 44). Studies have shown that ropes with knots, compared to straight ropes (without knots), significantly reduce their breaking resistance. So, for knots made on a dry rope, the decrease in strength is 20 - 32.7%, on a wet one - 19.8 - 35.2%, and on a wet frozen one - 39.5 - 47.8%.
The decrease in the nominal strength of ropes with knots can be explained by the combined force effect that occurs during tension at break, cutting and bending of individual fibers in the area of the knot, and when the rope is wet and frozen, also under the influence of ice crystals between them.
These data show that synthetic rope knots have more positive strength characteristics than hemp knots (E. Kazakova found that hemp rope knots are 45 - 65% less durable than the ropes themselves). But regardless of this, the decrease in strength is very large, which should be taken into account by climbers when climbing in adverse weather.
The results of an anonymous survey of climbers show (Fig. 20) that of the knots for tying with the main rope, bowline with suspenders is most often used (85%). This was also confirmed by observations of the participants of the republican review of technical training, during which 95.5% of 130 climbers were tied with this knot.
Rice. 20. Percentage of nodes used
If we look at the statistics of the use of knots by climbers of various qualifications, we will see that the masters and honored masters of sports are unanimous in choosing the knots that are tied to the main rope (87.5% use a bowline with suspenders and 12.5% use a chest belt). They do not resort to the explorer node. All this is very revealing, since the great practical experience accumulated over more than 10 years of dealing with the difficulties of climbing ascents taught them to distinguish safe and convenient from unsafe and unnecessary (Fig. 21).
Rice. 21. Percentage of knots used for tying with the main rope by climbers of various qualifications
In other grade groups there is more variety in the preferred choice of knots, although in all categories the highest percentage of climbers use bowline. A certain pattern can be traced in the preference for a double bowline and a bowline used together (although it decreases with an increase in the qualifications of climbers), as well as a belt (the latter increases with an increase in sports qualifications).
The use of bowline in climbing practice is caused by the following considerations:
A) the knot is durable (according to E. Kazakova, its ultimate strength is 55% of the strength of the hemp rope). Our experiments show that with a dry rope, the knot breaks at the point of tying under a load of 1310 kg in the I series of experiments (Fig. 22, a), 1265 kg - in the II series (Fig. 22, b) and 915 kg - in the III series ( Fig. 22, c).
Rice. 22. Working diagrams of the strength of cable-type ropes with a diameter of 12 mm in three series of experiments
The strength indicators of this knot do not change depending on the length of the rope. The gap occurs from mutual intermittent loads on the turns that make up the knot, which depends on the change in their strength;
B) the bowline is convenient for tying directly on the chest; in addition, it allows you to easily adjust the width of the chest harness.
The double bowline knot, although somewhat stronger than the bowline, is used by a significantly smaller number of climbers surveyed (3 and 3.1% during the republican technical review). Its breaking limit is 30 kg higher than that of the bowline for ropes of the I series of experiments (Fig. 22, a), by 20 kg - for the ropes of the II series (Fig. 22.6) and 35 kg - for the ropes of the III series (Fig. 22b). This can be explained by the presence of large radii of rope bends in the knot, which reduces the shearing effect. Under load, the windings that make up the knot are displaced abruptly, but with much lower force intervals than with the bowline knot.
Reasons for lesser preference for the double bowline are as follows:
A) the knot is difficult to tie and untie;
b) common mistakes when knitted, they can lead to tightening of the chest loop and strangulation in case of hanging on a rope;
c) it is inconvenient for climbers to put on a chest harness over their heads, especially if a backpack is behind them;
d) it is difficult to adjust the width of the strapping.
All authors classify the conductor knot as a group of knots for tying a climber with the main rope, but in our country it is almost never used for this purpose. More often it is used in assisting the victim, in the manufacture of various means of transportation, etc.
The reasons for the absence of adherents of this node are as follows:
A) when loaded, it is difficult to untie;
b) after a break, the knot does not fall apart, but turns into a tightened loop;
c) at a cross-shaped intersection of the turns that make up the assembly, its strength is additionally reduced by 20-32%.
All of the above gives us reason to attribute the conductor node to the group of additional nodes.
The chest harness as a means of tying to the main rope is preferred by 6% of the surveyed climbers and 1.4% of the participants in the first republican review. Made from a wide, durable fabric or from four loops of rope connected to each other, the harness eliminates some of the shortcomings of the chest harness from the main rope, increases the strength of the belay system and improves the distribution of dynamic shock during a fall. Easily fastened and removed, does not reduce the working length of the rope and can be used for a harness - seat and other purposes. Only the lack of belts can explain a small percentage of cases of their use.
Of the group of knots for connecting two ropes, climbers most often use reef double (32%) and single (26%). These nodes, taken together, are preferred by 14% of the respondents, among whom the majority are climbers of certain rank groups (Fig. 23).
Rice. 23. Percentage of knots used to connect two ropes by climbers of various qualifications
The study of the physical and mechanical properties of these nodes provides interesting data for their practical use. So, the reef knot has good strength. Its rupture is accompanied by a strong mutual compression of the parts that make up the knot. The mistake made by some climbers when using a reef knot to connect two ropes of different thicknesses is extremely dangerous. Our experiments confirmed the data of E. Kazakova that the strength of such knots is reduced by more than 50% compared to binding ropes of the same thickness; in the first case, the rupture of the knot occurs as a result of cutting a thick rope with a thinner one. This is especially true with braided and freezing ropes. And the double reef knot, made from ropes of the same thickness, eliminates the destructive effect of a thin rope.
A weaving knot (for tying the ends of ropes of the same and different thicknesses) was used by 9% of the respondents, and together with a single and double reef knot - by 8%. This node is not used by the “NRB Climber” badges. With an increase in the sports qualification of climbers, the percentage of preference for a weaving knot also increases. Among first-class athletes, it is 20.7%.
When subjected to a load, this assembly, even with little effort, is displaced due to the slipping of its constituent turns. Such a displacement, sometimes reaching 25 cm, most often occurs on a wet cable-type rope. The destruction of the node occurs when the turns of its constituent turns are pulled together, and it can also occur from a break. Changes in the knot under load are very dangerous, especially if the ropes are made of synthetic materials and there are no control knots.
Bramsheet knot, used for tying ropes of different and equal thickness, although it is preferred by some climbers, is not included in the curriculum and is not studied, because it duplicates the double reef knot in its purpose. The reliability and ease of tying the bramshkot knot determined its inclusion in the training programs for the training of instructors and highly qualified climbers. This is also evidenced by a significant percentage (12.5) of masters of sports - mountaineering instructors, who most often use it in their practice.
Questionnaire data show that from the group of auxiliary knots, climbers use a grasping knot (60%), a stirrup knot (4%) or both knots together (34%). Moreover, 100% of masters and honored masters of sports most often use a grasping knot, and this is not accidental. The valuable property of the grasping knot - to tighten when pulled - makes it indispensable for insurance when moving along the railing, descending and ascending the rope, and during rescue operations (Fig. 24).
Rice. 24. The percentage of use of auxiliary nodes by climbers of various qualifications
Although under static loads (at break), which is very typical for a grasping knot, it shows good physical and mechanical qualities (see Table 44), it is dangerous to use it for self-insurance when descending a rope in the following cases:
A) when the thickness of the auxiliary rope from which the grasping knot is tied is equal to or greater than the thickness of the descent rope, the knot will not tighten;
b) with wet and icy ropes, tightening the knot under loads is difficult, and in some cases impossible;
c) when the auxiliary rope from which the knot is tied is made of synthetic material with straight fibers, its tightening is weak, and sometimes impossible;
d) as a result of friction on the descending rope (made of synthetic material) of a large area of the knot made of nylon cord, at the moment of braking at high speed, it may melt. For synthetic materials, the melting point due to friction is about 60°. Melting can also occur as a result of friction of the rope in the carabiner (when descending on a fixed rope on the carabiner), when a high temperature also develops. Therefore, when descending in this way, the rope should be passed through 2-4 carabiners, going one after the other.
Relatively few first-rate athletes resort to using stirrups. There are even fewer adherents of this tool among low-skilled climbers. With increasing experience, climbers begin to better understand what is safe, useful and necessary for them. Knitting stirrups, in our opinion, should be used mainly when climbing fixed rope and during some rescue operations, and even then only for dischargers and mountaineering instructors. All climbers, however, must remember that stirrups as an element of self-insurance may well replace self-insurance with a loop from the main rope and a guide knot. This is due to the following factors:
1. The stirrup can be easily attached to and released from the carabiner (unlike the guide knot, which, when tightly tightened, must be cut).
2. Secure fastening of the stirrup in the carabiner.
Comparison of the results of our studies of the reliability of self-insurance using the stirrup knot and the loop from the conductor knot (see Table 45) shows the advantages of the first method. The difference in the absolute indicators of reliability of both methods testifies in favor of the stirrup and ranges within the following limits: 125 - 250 kg for ropes of the I series of experiments, 135 - 230 - for the ropes of the II series and 95 - 200 - for the ropes of the III series.
Table 45
Comparative data on the reliability of self-insurance using a loop from the conductor node and using a stirrup
| A series of experiments | Type and section of rope | Indicators | Loop with conductor knot | Stirrup |
| I - dry rope, t=+20 | 12 mm, braided straight fibers | kg | 1295 | 1495 |
| % of series I | 100 | 100 | ||
| % of ropes without a knot | 80 | 92,4 | ||
| 14 mm braided | kg | 1300 | 1550 | |
| % of series I | 100 | 100 | ||
| % of ropes without a knot | 76,5 | 91,1 | ||
| 10 mm trigger | kg | 625 | 755 | |
| % of series I | 100 | 100 | ||
| % of ropes without a knot | 77,1 | 93,2 | ||
| II - wet rope, t= +20 | 12 mm, braided straight fibers | kg | 1250 | 1440 |
| % of series I | 96,5 | 96,4 | ||
| % of ropes without a knot | 77 | 89 | ||
| 14 mm braided | kg | 1250 | 1500 | |
| % of series I | 99,7 | 96,8 | ||
| % of ropes without a knot | 74,7 | 88,2 | ||
| 10 mm trigger | kg | 600 | 735 | |
| % of series I | 95,9 | 97,3 | ||
| % of ropes without a knot | 74 | 90,8 | ||
| III - wet frozen rope, t= -30 | 12 mm, braided straight fibers | kg | 885 | 1080 |
| % of series I | 68,4 | 72,2 | ||
| % of ropes without a knot | 54,7 | 66,6 | ||
| 14 mm braided | kg | 875 | 1075 | |
| % of series I | 67,5 | 69,4 | ||
| % of ropes without a knot | 51,5 | 63,2 | ||
| 10 mm trigger | kg | 455 | 550 | |
| % of series I | 67,5 | 72,9 | ||
| % of ropes without a knot | 56,1 | 67,9 |
In addition, a comparison of the results of series II and III of experiments with series I shows that the reliability of self-insurance with the help of guide knots and stirrup with wet ropes is almost the same, but with wet and frozen ropes preference is given to the stirrup.
The percentage of reliability of the stirrup is even higher if it is knitted from various kinds ropes. This is also confirmed by our experiments. The difference in these percentages between self-belaying with a guide knot and self-belaying with a stirrup is more favorable for the second method. For dry ropes it ranges from 13.2 to 14.6%, for wet ropes from 13.8 to 14.2%, and for wet and frozen ropes it is 11.8%.
3. The stirrup knot allows you to easily and quickly change the length of the rope when self-belaying.
For these reasons, we recommend that all climbers master the stirrup knot. With alternate belay, 65% of climbers mainly use a combined method - over the shoulder (lower back) and a hook (rocky ledge). With this method, the first, most powerful dynamic blow in the fall takes on a hook (rocky ledge), and only then - a safety one. In the absence of a good dressing of the rope, this is dangerous, as it can lead to a break in the rope or pulling out the hook.
The predominant use of the over-the-shoulder method by some climbers has a known disadvantage. A rather strong dynamic blow is difficult to contain with only hands, even with a well-etched rope, especially if the spotter is standing on a small area, without good support for the legs, or if the position of the rope, legs and body does not correspond to the direction of a possible impact.
Hook-only belay is used relatively little. Newer climbing ropes made from artificial materials have great elasticity, which helps absorb some of the dynamic shock. Here the need to belay through the hook and with the help of mittened hands is mandatory.
Observations show that masters and honored masters of sports mainly use a combined method for insurance, and only a few of them resort to insurance only through a hook (rocky ledge) or only through their shoulder (lower back). Belay only through the shoulder (lower back) is typical for first-class and badge badges of the “NRB Climber”, and belay only through a hook (rocky ledge) is typical for athletes of II and III categories.
There is no doubt that the introduction of automatic insurance into practice will make fundamental changes in the insurance system as a whole.
An important point in working with the main rope is to withstand the load when it is bent in the carabiner at an angle of 180 °. Such a bend usually occurs when the climber walking first falls, who is hit due to his hanging on a rope attached to the last clogged hook. Different ropes show different possibilities to withstand such a blow:
A) a rope with straight fibers and braided (cable type) in a frozen state loses its physical and mechanical qualities less than others, which is explained by a good distribution of forces between individual load-bearing fibers and less icing;
b) braided ropes lose their qualities more;
c) with a given carabiner diameter (in our case, 10 mm), the thinner the rope, the less its qualities change. This is due to less uneven distribution of loads in the integral structure of the frozen rope.
The combined effect of the bending of the rope in the knot, as well as the effect of the ice structure in the III series of experiments, gives an overall decrease in the carrying capacity of the rope to 50% of its original rating - a fact that should be taken into account by all climbers operating in winter conditions.
Rope, the main means of ensuring the safety of a climber and hiker in the mountains, can cause the death of entire ligaments. There are cases when a slipped climber tore off the entire bundle. This obliges climbers to take insurance and self-insurance seriously, to remember their high responsibility for the health and life of a friend, for the success of the ascent, to be irreconcilable to violations of the technique and tactics of mountaineering, safety rules.
The rope causes the death of comrades in the following cases:
A) when driving with simultaneous insurance on simple, but dangerous sections of the route;
b) in the absence of insurance on the site where alternate insurance is required;
c) with large ligaments (more than 4 people), when it is impossible to follow the movements and actions of each climber;
d) when organizing the insurance of several bundles through one hook.
Violations of the rules while driving in the mountains, which did not lead to misfortune, cannot serve as a basis that one can act in this way without being in danger. Weaknesses cannot be covered up by ultimate success, they must be exposed and analyzed. Careful analysis of errors during an ascent or hike should always be carried out, and not just in connection with an accident.
You climbed to the shelf, and there is a tree. Instead of assembling a station from bookmarks, hooks and loops, make it on a tree. If it is thick, then it probably corresponds to:
- Durable- a tree 15 cm thick can withstand up to 15 kN.
- He doesn't need spread the load, it is not needed block with extra dot, because it is one and reliable.
- The tree station is ready for unexpected change in load. The tree will remain in place if the second participant fell off on the traverse in front of the station or the spotter was thrown up when the leader fell off.
perfect tree
At the base, its thickness is greater than or equal to the diameter of the helmet. It is alive or dried up recently. The ideal tree grows in a few square meters of normal soil, not in a pile of sand or gravel.
Do not trust old rotten stumps!
Make stations on living trees.
tree station
If you still have a loop of the desired length, circle it around the tree and fasten the ends with a carabiner.The loop should be long enough not to tighten around the tree. If it is wrapped too tightly around the tree, the carabiner connecting the ends will have to be loaded from three sides.
A carbine loaded in three directions. Don't do it
And with the control - it is considered
Do not stand on self-insurance in the resulting loop! You will load the node to the side, but it does not work like that. Below, on the cargo strand, tie a pointed eight, Austrian guide or stirrup. For self-insurance, stand in the resulting knot. More about the node: .
ledge
To quickly make a reliable station, throw a loop over the ledge. Make sure it's not a loose stone. If the ledge is questionable, try to loosen it. Do not stand under it while you stagger: if it breaks off, it will fall on your head. Get up so that he drove to the side if he falls off.
Didn't fall off, great. If there is a loop left, make a station out of it. If not - from the rope. See if the ledge has sharp edges that a sling or rope can rub against. If available, place an extra mitten, backpack, or mat under the loop. While the partner is rising, secure the loop with a rope. Before climbing, untie the safety net to climb out the full length of the rope.
A popular practice is to beat down sharp edges with a hammer. This is an opportunity to leave a mark on history. The notch in the tree will heal over time, and generations and generations of followers will see your mark on the rock. It contradicts rule:
Take away nothing but memories
Leave nothing but footprints!
When making a station on a ledge, make sure it can withstand the upward pull. This is important for all stations, but especially for ledges. If the leader puts a safe point and breaks, you will be pulled up:
How to throw up the insurer when the leader breaks
To prevent the loop from coming off, lay the bookmark so that it works up:
The loop is secured with a bookmark
If the ledge has a mushroom shape, tie the base tightly with a loop. If you knit from cord or rope, knit close and that's it. If you do from a loop, then like this:
From the ability to knit correctly and apply the basic climbing knots The life of not only the climber, but also the group depends on it. Learn about the main climbing knots.
There are twelve main knots in mountaineering. Here you can add a couple more “tasty” knots and you get 17. Knowing how to knit knots is useful, but not enough. You need to know and be able to apply knots in different situations. Plus, you need to be able to knit climbing knots in winter mittens, with your eyes closed, behind your back and with your eyes closed in mittens behind your back. Suddenly you find yourself in a situation where at night on high altitude in 30 degree frost you will need to tie a knot ... the head will not boil, only repeated repetition and muscle memory will help you. And therefore - practice knitting climbing knots all the time!
Basic climbing knots.
There is 12 basic climbing knots that you need to know how to knit:
- figure eight knot
- Node Explorer
- Austrian conductor knot
- Prusik knot
- Bachmann knot
- knot grapevine
- Counter node
- Bramstring knot
- Node UIAA
- Knot Stirrup
- bowline knot
- Control Node
Nodes are divided into 4 groups:
- Looped: figure eight, conductor, Austrian conductor, bowline
- Grasping: Prusik, French, Austrian, Bachmann
- Binders: grapevine, counter, bramshkotovy
- Special/Auxiliary: control knot, uyaa, stirrup, guard knot
The twelve basic climbing knots are:
Loop knots.
1. Explorer
It is used for tying to a rope and organizing self-insurance. The knot is used in solving many problems in mountaineering.
Pros: Easy to knit, easy to remember. You can tie both at the end of the rope and in the middle. Can be tied at one end.
Minuses: Strongly tightened under load. "Crawls", especially on a hard rope.
Be sure to knit a control knot!
How to knit a conductor knot:
2. Eight
A simple and very reliable knot. It is used to secure the rope to the climbing harness, that is, for tying. When tying to a harness, the knot loop should be slightly smaller size fist.
Be sure to tie a control knot- the knot should fit snugly against the "eight". After tying the G-8 knot with the control knot, the tip of the rope 5-7 cm long should remain.
How to knit a figure eight knot with a loop:
Rope climbing can be done in a variety of ways. For this, special descenders are used ("eight", "Radeberger", "Stop" by Petzl, Antron, I "D", etc.). carbine, UIAA knot, improvised items, etc.
Choice descender depends on the specifics of work, financial capabilities or habits. The main requirement for the descender is that it must be certified, must not have mechanical damage or signs of wear of a visually detectable value, provide a reliable stop in any place, provided that it is used strictly in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations.
The organization of descent along a fixed rope (assuming that the anchoring points are checked) begins with the inclusion of the ISS descending into the safety chain (plugging into the ISS the carabiner of the top insurance, or attaching the lanyard to safety rope using a gripping knot or safety device). Further, a harness is hung on a static carrier rope with the help of a descender and transferred over the bend of the roof, structures, etc. If the insurance is carried out by a partner, then before the start of the descent, you must perform a mandatory ritual. Ask: - "Insurance ready?" Start the descent only after the answer: “Ready”. If the descent is made independently, it is necessary, being on a self-belay, once again to check the reliability of fastening the clamp or the grasping knot on the safety rope and the correct fastening of the climber's ISS on the saddle and only after that unfasten the self-belay.
Crossing a bend is a matter of experience, since bends can be of various types: with a curb, without a curb, with a fence, with access under the eaves, from a horizontal surface or from a slope, etc. It is convenient to use the saddle. as an intermediate leg support before landing. The main condition is that when passing through the inflection there should not be a jerk.
The speed of descent should not exceed 1 - 1.5 m/sec. Otherwise, there is a risk of melting the sheath of the rope and prematurely disabling it. An even greater danger is the increased speed of descent if a grasping knot is used in the second safety chain. It can melt due to the heat generated by rubbing against the safety rope while moving.
It is not superfluous to recall: the point of fixing the self-insurance on the safety rope should be higher than the point of its fixing on the ISS.
As for the grasping knot, it cannot be left unattended. An uncontrolled knot can arbitrarily slide below the point of attachment of the cord on the ISS, creating a value of the jerk factor above the critical one. The same possibility exists for spontaneous tightening of the knot. In order to avoid trouble with the grasping knot during descent, the controlling hand must be placed above the knot. You can’t hold the knot in your fist: in the event of a breakdown and reflex compression of your fingers, you will go down without stopping, as the knot will slip and even melt. The most reliable is the location of the gripping knot below the descender: the load on it is minimal (it is perceived by the descender), and if the rope is released, the worker automatically stops.
Rope rappelling is often referred to as rappel. Hans Dülfer is a German climber who invented one of the first methods of descent, proposed and put into practice at the beginning of the 20th century.
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Descending along a fixed rope with the help of a belay device and a grappling knot.
If you need to go down the rope, the following techniques are used.
Procedure:
Tie a grasping knot on a rope and attach it to the power ring of the system with a carabiner;
pick up some rope through the grasping knot. The slack makes it easy to thread the rope into the belay device;
thread the rope into the belay device (according to the recommendations of the manufacturers);
take back the slack of the rope through the belay device and load the system, the lanyard will no longer be loaded and it will be possible to click it out of the station;
before descending, you must make sure that a knot is tied at the end of the rope (at least 1 meter from the end) or that it is fixed at the lower station;
check the correctness of the system, click out the lanyard and start the descent;
it is necessary to go down the rope smoothly, without jumps;
ATTENTION!
When loaded, the gripping knot must not rest against the belay device, the distance between the gripping knot and the belay device must be at least 10 cm.
During the descent, the legs should be kept shoulder-width apart, preferably at 90° to the slope, for a more stable position;
upper arm holds the grasping knot; lower hand controls the smoothness of the issuance of the rope;
approaching the station, snap a free lanyard into it;
loosen the rope: first click out the belay device (it heats up during descent), then remove the grasping knot;
give the command to the competitor at the top that the rope is free.
ATTENTION!
During the descent, avoid moving from side to side. Horizontal oscillations of a loaded rope along the terrain are dangerous because it can get on the sharp edges of the terrain and fray.
Descend with a UIAA knot with a catch knot
In the absence of a descender, the descent is carried out on the UIAA knot with a securing knot (which is located above the UIAA knot at a distance so that it can be easily reached by hand).
Only lockable carabiners are used. Do not tighten the grasping knot into a fist.
Multi-rope (multi-pitch) descent
During the descent of the rope along the equipped route and when working with one rope - 40-50 m - the following techniques are used.
Procedure:
During the descent, the use of a separate self-belay is recommended;
● the rope must be passed through the descent rings or the ring of the station;
● split the rope in half and pass under the station to avoid friction;
● tie semi-grapevine knots at the ends of the rope;
● drop the rope down or, dividing it into two equal coils and hanging it on a loop, give out the required minimum during the descent;
● the first participant descends on a double rope on a descender with a securing knot;
● having descended to the place of the next station, organizes a new station;
● gets on self-belay, gives himself a rope through the descender, leaving a free loop of 2 m (necessary slack for clipping the second participant);
● fasten the rope to the station (eg with a figure-eight knot through a carabiner) and disconnect the descender.
● gives a command that the rope is free;
● the participant at the top organizes a descent on a double rope with a grappling knot;
● after snapping the grappling knot and the descender, he snaps out the lanyard, dismantles the station and descends to the lower participant;
● having descended to the station, stands on self-insurance, releases the ropes, unties the knots at the ends of the rope;
● both participants pull the rope and organize a new descent.
ATTENTION!
It is important to pay attention to the fact that the rope does not rub against the lines of the station and lanyard.
Knot for pulling rope
When organizing a descent with two ropes and their subsequent pulling, especially if the terrain is very dissected and the knot can get stuck, a “simple” or “flat” knot is used. This node is better than all known nodes passes the kinks and dissected relief.
ATTENTION!
The free ends of the ropes after tying a “plain” or “flat” knot must be at least 25–30 cm! The use of the figure-eight knot in such a configuration is dangerous because the figure-eight knot in this configuration is untied at much lower loads than a flat knot. 
Lowering and pulling the rope:
- Snap a carabiner to spread the branches of both ropes during the descent. This method also called "comb";
- The pulling off (blue) rope should be closer to the rock, otherwise, when pulling off, the ropes may get stuck (bitten).