For centuries, tales of gladiatorial battles have fascinated people. And no wonder, because these fearless warriors fought for the right to live. For the most colorful presentation, powerful warriors were divided into types, and each of them was used in various battles and was armed in its own way.

Bestiaries never fought gladiators of other classes, they fought exotic animals. Especially for the battles, various dangerous animals were brought. Bestiaries were divided into two types. "Damnatio ad bestias" - given to the beasts. These included citizens of the lower class who were spoken to the execution. And this duel was more like a simple persecution by animals. The second type was called "venatio", which translates as a hunter. The hunters were armed with a club, a spear or darts, they entered the arena with an almost naked body without any armor. Also, hunters were engaged in training aggressive animals and often showed real performances to the audience, putting their hands and head into the mouth of a predator.

distinguished by cold-bloodedness and courage in any hopeless situation. They entered the arena armed only with light spears against opponents with heavy weapons. With the help of an unexpected attack and virtuoso defense, the velites showed the most colorful and striking victories, gaining the fame of cold-blooded fighters capable of the most effective actions during the brutal battles in the arena.

Powerful and brave had the glory of the elite of the world of gladiators. These formidable wars cut a man in half with one blow. They were distinguished by great pressure and endurance, often seriously wounded goplomakh - the winner, did not leave the battlefield for a long time listening to the enthusiastic cries of the audience. Powerful hoplomakhs could fearlessly fight alone with several opponents. Goplomakhs came out armed with swords - gladiuses or heavy two-toothed axes, for protection they used massive shields. On the head they wore a large helmet, decorated with horns or feathers.

belonged to the equestrian type of gladiators, started a duel on horseback and with long spears 2 - 2.5 meters, but they always ended the battle on foot with the help of swords. In the arena, they wore a wide-brimmed helmet, as well as a medium-sized round shield made of leather. This species was considered lightly armed, since the weight of the uniform was no more than 12 kg. Equits always fought only with equites and were not put up against gladiators of other types.

fought in the arena without armor in a spectacular mask on their faces. Possessing great dexterity and speed, they inflicted many cutting and stab wounds, exhausting opponents with their inaccessibility. Armed with two thin and light swords, dimachers easily fought opponents with heavy weapons. There were cases when some dimachers released by the emperor subsequently became excellent actors.

The main distinctive ability legnarians there was a skill honed to perfection to concentrate all his strength in one key blow. These skilled fighters rarely took part in fights to the death, but performed on the lists for the sake of showing a delightful spectacle. The main weapon was a staff or a whip, but sometimes they were armed with a long whip for a deadly duel with terrible animals. With one strong and precise blow of this scourge, the Legniarius easily broke the spine of a huge beast or his rival.

armed with shields and gladius swords and always acted in pairs, against especially strong opponents. On the head were worn conspicuous helmets, decorated with delightful crests with bright stripes. The crests helped the fighters not to lose sight of each other in order to cover their comrade in time. Often, in the event of the death of his partner, another fighter committed suicide without leaving the arena. Such fidelity was considered a confirmation of strong male friendship.

Retiarii are the oldest type of gladiators. Thanks to the great combat effectiveness, these trained warriors successfully opposed the heavily armed secutors and Thracians. At first, the retiarii went to battle equipped with a dagger, trident and net, later they were allowed to wear an impressive helmet and shields to protect their necks. But it was the net and the trident that remained the invariable feature of these brave warriors. The net thrown by an experienced hand for some time entangled the opponent in heavy weapons, which, trying to get out, was an easy target for a huge trident.

armed with a huge shield and sword, dressed in heavy armor and a round-shaped helmet covering the face with two small slits for the eyes. Usually gladiators of this type were exhibited against retiarii. At the beginning of the battle, the retiarius retreated to a non-dangerous distance, and the secutor pursued him, trying not to get caught in the net and under the blow of the trident. Wearing heavy armor and weapons, these brave warriors quickly got tired.

Thracians thanks to their courage and boundless courage, they became a legend of gladiatorial battles. They went out to fight in a heavy helmet with sharpened horns, a sharp Thracian sword and a strong bronze shield. Such uniforms turned the fighter into a dangerous weapon against mounted and foot enemies. When the sword was lost, the Thracians instantly took off their helmet and used it as a weapon during close combat. Many eminent Thracians received the privilege of wearing a colorful staff during the exit of all gladiators before the start of battles.

Sagittaria were equestrian gladiators who skillfully wielded a bow. Swift sagittarii usually came out at the end of mass battles, killing the surviving fighters, while still managing to fight each other to the death. There were situations when these reckless brave men shot at the emperor's box, in anticipation of killing the ruler who took their freedom from them. Attempts always ended in failure, but the memory of these exceptional feats gave hope to the gladiators and one day resulted in the glorified uprising of Spartacus.

were the most dangerous gladiators - loners of Rome, with their special sharpened shields and gladiuses, they inflicted cutting wounds on their opponents. Perfect possession of any melee weapon, as well as good physical fitness, allowed the warriors to strike at their rivals in any position. The Sixsors also fought with horse gladiators, they hit the horse and killed with the gladius the riders who were knocked down by their own horse.

came out for a duel only against provocateurs. They themselves could challenge an opponent to fight in order to strengthen their position by defeating a more popular opponent, or to settle conflicts between two gladiator schools that competed with each other. Provocateurs armed themselves in the clothes of Roman legionnaires, wore a rectangular shield, cuirass and helmet.

Samnites like retiarii were an early form of gladiators. They were prisoners of war from the region of Samnium. Roman soldiers, having defeated the Samnites, forced them to participate in amusing battles, which later turned into gladiatorial battles. The Samnites dressed in military uniform and fought with the help of a sword and a rectangular shield. Their enemies were captured soldiers from the territories defeated by Rome. Later, when Samnium became a province of the Roman Empire, the Samnites ceased to be classified as a separate species and were attached to the Hoplomaches and Murmillons, who fought with similar weapons.

they hardly put on armor and went out to fight with a bare torso and without using a helmet, so that it could be seen that a woman was fighting. They were armed with light swords and small shields. Fights involving female gladiators were rare, and were accepted by the public as a novelty. Women competed with each other and, on rare occasions, with dwarfs, which shocked the crowd. Women's Gladiator fights always accompanied by scandals and were soon banned.

Naumachians considered the gladiatorial elite and took part in sea battles. Due to the fact that not all arenas could be filled with water, such performances were very rare. The naumacharii emerged armed with heavy spears, short swords, and grappling hooks. In battles on the water, various historical battles were usually reconstructed, but the outcome of the battle did not always correspond to reality.

Rudiaria there were the most experienced warriors who deserved freedom for their merits, but decided to remain in the gladiatorial craft. As a symbol of freedom, they received a wooden sword. Rudiarii could become trainers, judges, or remain fighters. The audience adored them, so every appearance of the rudiarium promised a real show.

Pregenaries came out before the start of the competition to warm up the crowd. They fought with wooden swords without any armor.

Tertiarii- exhibited to replace the previously declared gladiator, in cases where he could not come out. Also sometimes there were three gladiators in the arena. The first two fought against each other, and the third fought with the winner.

All these fearless wars certainly deserve respect and the legends about them will not die for a long time.

It was previously believed that the custom of gladiator fights came to Rome from Etruria. However, the frescoes from Campania2, where the custom was of a religious and ceremonial nature, as well as the testimony of Titus Livius3, allow us to lean towards the version of the Campanian origin of the gladiatorial games. The origin of this custom is variously explained; there is reason to believe that in ancient times it was customary to kill captured enemies over the coffin of a deceased noble warrior, sacrificing them to the gods of the underworld. Subsequently, these cruel sacrifices were probably transformed into ritual fights of people armed with a sword (gladius). The first gladiators were called bustuaries (from "bustum" - a fire on which the body of the deceased was burned)4, which shows the original connection of gladiatorial games (munera) with funerary celebrations, in honor of which the earliest recorded Roman spectacles of 264 BC were organized. dedicated to the funeral of Lucius Junius Brutus5. Over time, gladiatorial games began to be arranged on other occasions; they also entered the program of spectacles during some holidays.

The earliest ruins of amphitheaters that have survived to this day date from the reign of Sulla and were built in the colonies of veteran warriors, located mainly in Campania. The most famous is the amphitheater built in Pompeii, which was colonized around 80 BC. army veterans, whose presence and traditions K. Welch attributed to the primary factor in the development of gladiatorial culture in this territory7. It is absolutely true that interest in gladiator fights in the provinces was supported mainly by three groups of society: legionnaires, veterans, and the romanized urban elite, as evidenced primarily by the ruins of amphitheaters, as well as finds of small sculptures with a gladiatorial theme in legionary fortresses and colonies8. Interest” of legionnaires in gladiatorial games stimulated not so much by a thirst for bloody spectacles as by practical interest. From time to time, the training of legionnaires took place not on the territory of the legion camp (campus), but in gladiatorial schools (ludus). In 50 B.C. Julius Caesar planned to build a ludus gladiatorium near his legionary base at Ravenna,9 not only for the entertainment of his warriors, but to train them there with the help of experienced instructors (doctores gladiatorum). only in a single method of training fencing with a sword, and besides this, in the use of some similar types of protective weapons. In this regard, it is interesting to consider one of the elements of gladiatorial weapons - a helmet, as the most representative example of a close relationship with army fashion. The constructive similarity of some gladiatorial helmets with those widely used in the 1st century BC is noted. AD in the Roman army with infantry helmets of the Weisenau type. In addition, one can trace the similarity of their decor with the ceremonial cavalry helmets of the same time. Unfortunately, it is not possible to conduct such a comparative analysis over several centuries. The earliest representative sources - gladiatorial reliefs - appear only in the era of the early principate, and the latest mosaics depicting gladiatorial weapons, more or less clearly, date back to the beginning of the 4th century. AD Not all of them, however, depict helmets in such detail as would be necessary for comparative analysis with the real specimens at our disposal, which almost all belong to the 1st century. AD Thus, only for this century there is a sufficient volume of both iconographic and archaeological material. The absence of any visual sources and material finds for the Republican period does not allow us to fully imagine what types of helmets were used by gladiators during the time of Spartacus, and forms a gap in the line of development of the gladiatorial helmet. Nevertheless, a number of signs point to the genetic relationship between wide-brimmed gladiatorial helmets and the Boeotian helmet, which appeared in Greece as early as the 5th century BC. BC The Boeotian helmet was widespread not only in Boeotia, but throughout Greece, as well as throughout the Hellenistic space, up to Bactria. In addition to numerous images of him, several copies were found. The earliest finds were made in Athens10 and Mesopotamia (on the Tigris River)11 and date back to the 4th century BC. BC. From the time of Alexander the Great, cheek pads and plumes appeared on Boeotian helmets, and from the 2nd century. BC. the frontal part of the tulle begins to be decorated with volutes12, which in the future will also be characteristic of gladiatorial helmets.

Roman gladiator weapons

Figurative sources show a wide variety of types of helmets used by gladiators: from an infantry helmet of the Weisenau type, equipped with forehead volutes13, to fully closed ones, reminiscent of a medieval topfhelm14 (Plates I-III). Some types of gladiatorial helmets are presented exclusively in pictorial sources. In addition, on completely narrowly localized groups of monuments. So, for example, I know of at least four images of a rather unusual helmet with a crest that goes from the back of the head to the very chin (bas-relief and relief from Phrygian Hierapolis15, a statuette from the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge16 and a monument from Tatarevo in the Sofia Museum17). All these images come from the east of the Roman Empire, which suggests a local variety of secutor helmets18. The variety of depicted types of helmets deserves their consideration in a separate large work, where it will be necessary to consider in detail all the images at our disposal, and show which of them really reflect real-life helmets, and which are artistic fiction and author's fantasy. Taking all this into account, this article will mainly consider archaeological material. Archaeological finds are few and come mainly from cities on the coast of the Gulf of Naples, destroyed by one of the worst disasters in human history - the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in August 79 AD. e. More than 75% of the finds come from the barracks of gladiators in Pompeii, where, since 1748, the Cavalier Rocco de Alcubierre has been excavating for the Spanish King Charles III. In 1764, a young Spanish engineer, Francesco La Vega, joined the excavations and was the first to draw sketches of the objects found and keep a neat diary of the excavations19. Prior to this, the main style of excavation in Pompeii was treasure hunting. There is evidence that La Vega began to excavate the barracks of the gladiators in the same 1764, and they ended only when the building was completely cleared in 1800. In 1766/7. workers cleared a room in which they found well-preserved weapons of gladiators, conserved with volcanic ash and pumice stone20. To this we must add scattered finds in Herculaneum and its environs (helmets from the Louvre21 and the Berlin Antiquarium22).

Other finds not related to the disaster in the Gulf of Naples come from the Roman frontier. A tinned helmet crown without decoration was found in Houkedon (Suffolk, England)23, a visor in the form of a lattice comes from Aquincum (Budapest)24, a pommel in the form of a griffin was found at the site of the border fortress of the German limes25, and a cheekpiece was found in Xanten26. In addition to these finds, in the museums of the world there are several more helmets identified with the weapons of gladiators. They are held in the collections of the Museum at Castel San Angelo in Rome27, the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto28, the John Woodman Higgins Armory29 and the Detroit Institute of the Arts30.

Typology

Most helmets have fairly wide brim, according to the shape of which M. Junkelmann divides them into two types31. The first, earlier type (type "Chieti G") has horizontal brim around the entire perimeter of the helmet. In the second type (“Pompeii G”), the fields are horizontal only from the sides and behind, and in front they are sharply raised above the forehead, forming a kind of curved visor. The latter type is a transitional variant to a later type, no longer found among the finds in Pompeii. M. Junkelmann calls this type "Berlin G". It has very low (at the level of the neck) horizontal margins at the back and sides and a clear grille visor with almost vertical margins at the front. Added to this are the Provocateur G and Secutor G types.

However, the typology of M. Junkelmann relies exclusively on design features and does not take into account the design features of helmets, which in some cases was standard. All this makes it possible to make the typology of gladiator helmets more detailed, not only to highlight the features, but also, using iconographic material, to try to associate one or another version of the helmet with a certain type of gladiator.

All archaeological finds can be divided into three types with subtypes.

Type I (Plate V, 2; VII, 1-4). The crown resembles an army helmet of the Weizenau type and in most cases is richly ornamented with chased figures. A visor plate is riveted to the forehead part of the crown, as on infantry helmets. The lower edge of the frontal part of the crown has semicircular cutouts, which, together with the cheekpieces attached to the pins, which had the same semicircular cutouts on their upper edges, formed a solid visor with round eye cutouts, which were closed by round false lattice eyecups. The butt pad is located almost at right angles to the crown and is completely similar to the butt pads of Weizenau-type helmets.

Type II (Plate V, 3; X, 3). The crown is also similar to Weizenau-type infantry helmets and is devoid of any decoration. It is also similar to the crown of helmets of the first type, but does not have semicircular arcuate cutouts on the lower edge of the frontal part, and, in addition, there is a low longitudinal ridge. The visor consists of two halves (cheek pads) attached to the crown on the side hinges and fastened together after putting on the helmet using a centrally located vertical pin plate. Eye slits in the form of small, unprotected round cutouts that significantly limit the view. A clear disadvantage of this type is poor air exchange, since the visor is devoid of any other holes except for the eye slits, and this is clearly not enough. Type III (Plate V, 1). A crown with wide curved fields, to which cheek pads are attached with the help of hinges, and lattice eyecups are attached to them, in turn, with the help of pins. According to the shape of the crest, visor and decor, helmets of this type can be divided into three subtypes.

Option A (Table VIII, 1-3). The crown is decorated with volutes and a mascaron on the forehead. On the sides, in the places where the volutes end, there are bushings for fastening the plume in the form of a bird's feather. The crest of the helmet ends with the image of a griffin's head. According to iconographic sources, this type of helmet is associated with a Thracian gladiator (Thrax) (bronze statuette of a Thracian from the former collection of F. Von Lipperheide32 - now in Hannover - gladiatorial reliefs from the tomb of Lusius Storax, National Museum, Chieti33).

Variant B (Plate VIII, 4; IX, 1-4; X, 1, 2). The top of the helmet is richly decorated with chased images of mythological scenes, various kinds of trophies, scenes of captivity of barbarians, scenes of triumphal processions. The crest of the helmet sometimes also has decoration. On pictorial sources, such helmets are worn by a gladiator-mirmillo (mirmillo) (a bronze statuette of a gladiator from Lillebon, the Museum of Antiquities in Rouen [Plate III]; a bronze statuette from the Berlin Antiquarium34) or hoplomachus (hoplomachus) (a statuette from the Berlin Antiquarium35).

Option C (Table VI; X, 4). Represented by a single copy in the Berlin Antiquarium36, but in a number of cases it is depicted on iconographic sources (for example, a relief from the Berlin Antiquarium37). It differs from the previous version by a large bend of wide fields, a visor in the form of bars over the entire face, as well as a massive crest. It is unfortunate that there is no guaranteed provenance (herculaneum or the Adriatic Sea38 is named as the place of discovery), but comparison with objects from Pompeii and Herculaneum shows a different quality of the Berlin helmet. In contrast to the gladiator weapons, almost completely decorated with figured reliefs, located in the Archaeological Museum in Naples and in the Louvre, the light-dark contrast of the Berlin weapons resembles an elegant chessboard pattern. This effect was carried out by the fact that the brass of the helmet was tinned and scraped off again until a network of rasters was obtained in every second square of the tin layer. In these places, the initially golden, and now gray-green, patina-covered surface of the tin is visible. Appearing probably in the second quarter of the 1st c. AD, helmets of this variant remained popular until the end of the existence of the gladiator. Judging by the iconographic monuments, in the western part of the Empire during this time they were practically unchanged, while in the Hellenistic East there were some modifications of such helmets (for example, with reduced fields in front).

The picture below shows: Hoplomachus, 3rd c. AD.

Gladiator (from Latin gladius - "sword", "gladius") - the name of the fighters in ancient Rome, who fought among themselves or with animals for the amusement of the public in special arenas.

The first gladiators, strictly speaking, were not such, but were only ordinary slaves and convicted criminals. Later, schools were created for the training of gladiators, and in the hope of fame and fortune, their ranks were replenished with people from all classes. Huge amphitheaters were built especially for gladiator fights.

Gladiators used various types of weapons. They often fought one on one. If one of the opponents was wounded, then according to the rules, his fate was in the hands of the audience. If they wanted to keep him alive, they waved handkerchiefs in the air or held their thumbs up. If their thumbs looked down, the victim was to die.

There were cases when citizens, in pursuit of fame and money, gave up their own freedom and became gladiators. Among them there were even female gladiators, when in 63 AD. er. Emperor Nero issued a decree allowing free women to participate in gladiatorial tournaments. After him, Pozzuoli allows Ethiopian women to fight. And the emperor Domitiano in 89 brings dwarf gladiators to the arena.

In order to become a gladiator, it was necessary to take an oath and declare oneself "legally dead". From that moment on, the fighters entered another world, where cruel laws of honor reigned. The first of these was silence. Gladiators communicated in the arena with gestures. The second law is the complete observance of the rules of honor. So, for example, a gladiator who fell to the ground and was conscious of his complete defeat was obliged to remove protective helmet and put your throat under the opponent's sword, or plunge your knife into your own throat.

Over time, such fights began to bother the Romans and they began to invent new spectacles. Gladiators had to fight lions, tigers and other wild animals.

Much effort was made to put an end to these terrible performances, but this was not done until 500 AD. Emperor Theo-Doric.

Types of gladiators

1. Andabat. They were dressed in chain mail, like the eastern cavalry (cataphracts), and helmets with visors without slits for the eyes. Andabats fought each other in much the same way as knights in medieval jousting tournaments, but without the ability to see each other.
2. Bestiary. Armed with a dart or dagger, these fighters were originally not gladiators, but criminals (noxia), sentenced to fight with predatory animals, with a high probability of death of the condemned. Later, bestiaries became well-trained gladiators, specializing in combat with various exotic predators using darts. The fights were organized in such a way that the beasts had little chance of defeating the bestiary.
3. Bustuary. These gladiators fought in honor of the deceased at ritual games during the funeral rite.
4. Dimacher( from the Greek di - "two" and machaer - "sword") . Two swords were used, one in each hand. They fought without a helmet and shield, with two daggers. They were dressed in a short soft tunic, hands and feet were bandaged tight bandages sometimes wore leggings.
5. Equity( pl. equites, from lat. equus - "horse") . In the early descriptions, these lightly armed gladiators were dressed in scaly armor, wore a medium-sized round cavalry shield (parma equestris), a helmet with a brim, without a crest, but with two decorative tassels. During the Empire, they wore armor for the forearm (maniku) on right hand, a sleeveless tunic (which distinguished them from other gladiators who fought bare-chested), and a belt. Equites started the fight on horseback, but after they threw their spear (hasta), they dismounted and continued to fight with a short sword (gladius). Equits usually only fought other Equits.
6. Gaul. They were equipped with a spear, a helmet and a small Gallic shield.
7. Essedarius ("chariot fighter", from the Latin name for the Celtic chariot - "esseda"). Perhaps they were first brought to Rome by Julius Caesar from Britain. Essedaria are mentioned in many descriptions from the 1st century AD. e. Since there are no images of the Essedarii, nothing is known about their weapons and fighting style.
8. Hoplomachus (from the Greek "οπλομ?χος" - "armed fighter"). They were dressed in quilted, trouser-like clothing for legs, possibly made of canvas, loincloth, belt, greaves, forearm armor (maniku) on the right arm, and a brimmed helmet with a stylized griffin crest, which could be adorned with a tassel of feathers at the top and single feathers on each side. They were armed with a gladius and a very small round shield made from a single sheet of thick bronze (examples from Popmpeii have been preserved). They were put up for fights against the Mirmillons or the Thracians. It is possible that the Goplomakhs descended from the earlier Samnites after it became “politically incorrect” to use the name of a people who had become friendly to the Romans.
9. Lakveary ("fighter with a lasso"). Lakvearii could be a type of retiarii that tried to catch their rivals with a lasso (laqueus) instead of a net.
10. Murmillon( from the Greek mormylos - "sea fish") . They wore a helmet with a stylized fish on the crest (from the Latin "mormylos" - "sea fish"), as well as armor for the forearm (manica), a loincloth and belt, leggings on the right leg, thick windings covering the top of the foot, and very short armor with a notch for padding at the top of the foot. Murmillons were armed with a gladius (40-50 cm long) and a large rectangular shield, like legionnaires. They were put up for battle against the Thracians, Retiarii, sometimes also against the hoplomachi.
11. PEGNARY. They used a whip, a club and a shield, which was attached to the left hand with straps.
12. Provocateur ("applicant"). Their outfit could be different, depending on the nature of the games. They were depicted wearing a loincloth, a belt, a long greave on the left leg, a maniku on the right arm, and a helmet with a visor, without brim and crest, but with feathers on each side. They were the only gladiators protected by a cuirass (cardiophylax), which was at first rectangular, then often rounded. The provocateurs were armed with a gladius and a large rectangular shield. Exhibited for battles with the Samnites or other provocateurs.
13. Retiarius ("fighter with a net"). Appeared at the dawn of the Empire. They were armed with a trident, a dagger and a net. Except for a loincloth supported by a wide belt (balteus) and a large armor on the left shoulder joint, the retiarius did not have any clothes, including a helmet. Sometimes a metal shield (galerus) was used to protect the neck and lower face. There were retiarii who played female roles in the arena (“retiarius tunicatus”), which differed from ordinary retiarii in that they were dressed in a tunic. The retiarii usually fought with the secutors, but sometimes with the myrmillons.
14. Rudiarium. Gladiators who deserved to be released (rewarded with a wooden sword called a rudis) but chose to remain gladiators. Not all rudiarii continued to fight in the arena, there was a special hierarchy among them: they could be trainers, assistants, judges, fighters, etc. Rudiarii fighters were very popular among the public, as they had vast experience and one could expect real show.
15. Sagittarius( from lat. sagitta - "arrow") . Mounted archers armed with a flexible bow capable of launching an arrow over a long distance.
16. Samnite. The Samnites, an ancient type of heavily armed fighters that disappeared in the early imperial period, pointed to the origin of gladiatorial combat by their name. The historical Samnites were an influential group of Italic tribes living in the Campania region south of Rome, against whom the Romans fought wars from 326 to 291 BC. e. The equipment of the Samnites was a large rectangular shield (scutum), a feathered helmet, a short sword, and possibly a greave on the left leg.
17. Secutor( about t lat. sequi - "to pursue") . This type of fighters was specially intended for fights with retiarii. The secutors were a variation of the myrmillons and were equipped with similar armor and weapons, including a large rectangular shield and a gladius. Their helmet, however, covered the entire face, except for two holes for the eyes, in order to protect the face from the sharp trident of their rival. The helmet was practically round and smooth, so that the net of the retiarius could not catch on it.
18. Skissor ("one who cuts"). Nothing is known about this type of gladiator other than the name.
19. Tertiary (also called "Suppositicius" - "replacing"). Some competitions involved three gladiators. First, the first two fought each other, then the winner of this fight fought with the third, who was called the tertiary. Tertiarii also came to replace if the gladiator declared for the fight, for one reason or another, could not enter the arena.
20. Thracian( lat. thraex - a representative of the people of Thrace) . The Thracians were equipped with the same armor as the goplomakhs. They had a large helmet covering the entire head and adorned with a stylized griffin on the forehead or on the front of the crest (the griffin was the symbol of the goddess of retribution Nemesis), a small round or flattened shield (parmula), and two large greaves. Their weapon was a Thracian curved sword (sicca, about 34 cm long). They usually fought the Myrmillons or the Hoplomaches.
21. Velit( pl. velites, from lat. velum - "canvas", because dressed in a linen tunic) . Foot gladiators armed with a dart with a throwing cord tied to it. Named after units of the early Republican army.
22. Venator. They specialized in demonstrative hunting for animals, not fighting them in close combat, like bestiaries. Venators also performed tricks with animals: they put their hand in the mouth of a lion; rode on a camel, keeping a lion on a leash nearby; made an elephant walk on a tightrope). Strictly speaking, the venators were not gladiators, but their performances were part of the gladiator fights.
23. Pregenary. They performed at the beginning of the competition to "warm up" the crowd. They used wooden swords (rudis) and wrapped cloth around the body. Their fights took place to the accompaniment of cymbals, pipes and water organs (hydraulis).

Velit ( Veles, lots of - Velites) - a gladiator armed with darts (hastae velitares). Velites gladiators followed the weapons and tactics of the ancient Roman light infantry velites, by analogy with which they were named.

Goplomakh

Hoplomachus (hoplomachus from the Greek "οπλομάχος" - "armed fighter") is a fairly common type of gladiator. He imitated Greek hoplites with his equipment. The word hoplomachus itself comes from the Greek ὁπλομάχος ("armed fighter" or "warrior with hoplon"). The goplomakh's armor consisted of a helmet, a small round shield-parma or a large legionnaire's shield made of one sheet of thick bronze (sample from Pompeii survived), quilted windings ( fasciae) on both legs or high leggings (ocreae), armor for the forearm-manica (manica) on the right hand. The goplomakh's helmet had wide brim, a visor with a grate, and upper reaches with a plume. Feathers were inserted on the sides of the helmet. The goplomakh was armed with a spear-gasta (hasta) and a dagger-pugio ( pugio).

The spear allowed the hoplomakh to fight at a long distance. In the event of the loss of a spear, the goplomakh went into close combat, fought with a dagger. The traditional opponents of the hoplomachus were the Mirmilon or, more rarely, the Thracian.

Gaul

Gall ( Gallus) - a type of gladiators of the period of the Republic. They were equipped with a spear, a helmet and a small Gallic shield. The armor and weapons of the Gaulish gladiators were supposed to resemble Gallic warriors. It is certain that in the 1st century BC. e. Gallic gladiators "transformed" into Mirmilons.

dimacher

Dimaher ( dimachaerus) is a fairly rare type of gladiator. The word dimachaerus literally means - “with two sabers”, “double saber” (from the Greek Διμάχαιρος). The dimacher's armor consisted of a helmet, short leggings and chain mail (Lorika hamata). The helmet had a closed visor with a grille and wide brim. He was armed with two curved mahair swords ( machaera), or sikam daggers.

It is not known exactly what type of gladiators were the opponents of the dimacher in the arena. But the Romans considered dimacher one of the most dangerous fighters.

Equities

Equity (eques, set - equites) - a type of gladiator who fought on a horse. Literally, "rider". Also called the ancient Roman cavalrymen. Unlike most gladiators, who fought naked to the waist, the Equites wore sleeveless tunics girded with a belt. Equita armor consisted of a helmet, a cavalry round shield-parma (parma equestris) with a diameter of 60 cm and armor for the forearm (manica) on the right hand. The helmet had wide brim, a visor with a grille and had no headwaters. Feathers were inserted on the sides. Sometimes the Equites wore scaly armor (Lorika squamata). Equit was armed with a spear-gasta ( hasta) and gladius. Equites opened gladiator fights: they fought in the morning, immediately after the solemn pomp, anticipating the persecution of animals, the execution of criminals and the fights on foot gladiators. Equita battle tactics inherited the usual tactics of the Roman cavalry: throwing a spear, they dismounted and fought with a sword - horseback combat at a time when stirrups were not yet known was very inconvenient. In the arena, equites fought exclusively among themselves.

Mirmilon

Mirmilon, murmilon ( myrmillo, murmillo, plural - myrmillones, murmillones) is one of the most common types of gladiators. According to one version, these gladiators got their name because on the helmet they wore the image of the fish “mormir” (Greek Μόρμυλος, μορμύρος). It should be borne in mind that now African freshwater fish are called “mormirs”, however, in ancient times, the word μόρμυλος, μορμύρος could also be called a certain type of fish common in the Mediterranean Sea. The Myrmilons themselves are thought to have descended from Gaulish gladiators. Mirmilon's armor consisted of a helmet, a bracer on his right hand, a short (below the knee) greaves on his left leg, and a shield - scutum. He did not have a shell, he fought naked to the waist, which made it possible to demonstrate to the public a powerful torso and muscles. Myrmilon's helmet had a wide brim, a visor with a lattice and a characteristic crest in the form of a fish, which could be silver plated. Myrmilon fought with an ordinary sword of the Roman infantry - a gladius. When from the II-III centuries AD. e. the mirmilons received a long sword instead of a gladius - spatu, they became known as "mirmilons-spataria" ( myrmillones-spatharii).

The traditional opponent of Mirmilon was a Thracian. The Mirmilon-Thracian pair was one of the most common during gladiator fights. Less commonly, the Myrmilons fought with hoplomachus or retiarii, but never among themselves.

Thracian

Thracian (Thraex, set - Thraeces) - one of the most common types of gladiators. Reliably, this type of gladiators appeared as a result of the appearance in the 1st century BC. e. a large number of Thracian prisoners of war. The equipment of this type repeated the national Thracian: it was armed with a curved dagger-siko, the armor consisted of a helmet, quilted windings on both legs, high greaves, a small rectangular strongly arched shield and a bracer on the right hand. The Thracian's helmet had wide brim, a visor with a grate and a characteristic headstock in the form of a griffin - one of the symbols of the goddess of revenge Nemesis.

Thracian gladiators were considered a pronounced attacking type of fighters. The curved dagger gave them certain advantages in close combat. The main rivals of the Thracians in the arena were the Myrmilons. Sometimes the Thracians also fought the Hoplomakhs.

Secutor

Esedarius

Esedarius(essedarius) - a gladiator who fought on chariots. Its name comes from the word essedum, which the Romans called the chariots of the Celts. On one chariot there were at the same time one or two esedarii, in the second case one controlled the horses, the second was directly a fighter. The word essedarius was used not only in relation to gladiators, but also to the Celtic chariot warriors (in Gaius Julius Caesar in "Notes on the Gallic War"). Perhaps they appeared after Caesar's campaign in Britain. They are known only from descriptions (starting from the 1st century AD), their images have not been preserved, and nothing is known about their fighting style. It can be assumed that the esedarius rode a chariot along the edges of the arena and fired at foot opponents with a bow and threw darts at them. The Esedarii were usually armed with spears, bows and swords, sometimes with a small shield. Sharp blades could be attached to the wheels.

Cast

Cast or cestus (cestus) - fist fighter, boxer in the circus arena. The name comes from the ancient Roman boxing glove - Cast (cestus or caestus).

Krupelarii

Krupelarii, crupelarius (crupellarius) - a type of gladiator, whose armor consisted of a lamellar shell of Lorik segmentat, on a manic bracer on both hands and high greaves. The helmet was closed, with slits for the eyes and mouth, it resembled a medieval tophelm. In solid armor, like a shell medieval knight, the gladiator-croupelarium was almost invulnerable to the opponent. The armament consisted of a scutum and a gladius. Heavy armor placed increased demands on candidates for crupelaria: staying in them required extraordinary physical strength and endurance.

Tacitus describes the crupelaris as gladiators, recruited from the slaves of the Gauls, and equipped according to the traditions of the warriors of Lugdun Gaul. They took part in the uprising of the Trevers led by Florus and Sacrovir in 21:

Some of the slaves underwent gladiator training. Wrapped in iron after the custom of their people, these krupelarii, as they were called, were too clumsy for offensive action, however, were adamant in defense ... The infantry carried out a frontal attack. The Gallic ranks moved back. Armored warriors delayed the advance: they were invulnerable to swords and darts. However, the Romans, using axes and picks, destroyed the armor along with the owners, just like breaking a wall. Other gladiators were knocked to the ground with spears and tridents, and taking advantage of their helplessness, they put them to death.

Perhaps the historian was referring to the heavily armed Gaul gladiators, who were later transferred to the Myrmilons.

lakveary

lakveary, lakverary, lakveator(laquearius, laquerarius, laqueator) - a kind of retiarius, literally - "armed lasso", "lasso". The equipment consisted of a lasso (laqueus), a short spear and a dagger. Lakvearia appeared rather late. Their tactics repeated the tactics of the retiarius: they tried to catch the enemy with a lasso, and then hit with a dagger. The protective armor was identical - the sleeve - Manik and the galley pauldron.

Most gladiators had warriors and hunters as their prototype. Since the lasso was an unusual weapon for the Romans, it can be assumed that the equipment of this type of gladiator comes from the equipment of some barbarian tribe, possibly the Sagartian warriors from Ancient Persia.

In addition, it is suggested that the lacqueary could be a kind of pegniarium, that is, a circus jester, amused the audience with comic fights during breaks.

Pegniarius

Pegniarius(paegniarius) - a gladiator, designed to entertain the audience in between fights, when the fighters rested. The name comes from the Greek word παίγνιον ("toy", "toy", "comic performance"). Pegnarii were armed only with wooden rudisam swords (rudis) and whips. Protective equipment consisted of a wooden shield and wooden shields on the arms and legs instead of handrails and greaves, and instead of a helmet, they wrapped a cloth around their heads. Pegnarii made comic fights. Unlike real gladiators, they could live a long life: the famous epitaph to the pegniar Secundus, which reports that he lived 99 years, 8 months and 18 days.

Sagitarius

Sagitarius(sagittarius) - gladiator archer. He wore a conical helmet and a scaly shell of Lorica squamat, was armed with a bow (arcus) and arrows (sagittae).

Samnite

Samnite(Samnis, many - Samnites) - a type of gladiators of the Republic period. At one time it was the most popular of all. Represented the warriors of the Italian region of Samnia, conquered by the Romans in the III century BC. e. The equipment of this type of gladiator inherited the national Samnite. The armor of the Samnite consisted of a helmet with a visor, dressed with a crest or feathers (galea), a shield (oval or rectangular), a leather greaves on the left leg (ocrea), a manica bracer and the tridisc carapace inherent in the Samnites. The Samnite was armed with a spear and a sword - a gladius.

Skisor

Scissor, scissor(scissor, set - scissores) or arbelas (arbelas, set - arbelai) - a gladiator, whose name comes from the word scindo ("I cut", "shred"). Another name - "arbelas" (see) is known only through one source (that is, hapax), so it is not possible to accurately identify them. Arbelas is remembered by the ancient Greek writer Artemidor Daldian in his treatise Oneirocritica (Snotlumach) as one of the gladiators that a person can dream of to show the prospects of marriage (arbelas in a dream, like a dimacher, portend a bad wife). Perhaps the second name of this type of gladiator comes from the ancient Greek ἄρβηλος, which meant a crescent-shaped shoemaker's knife, similar to the Eskimo ulu - this was associated with the characteristic, rather exotic weapon of this type of gladiators, which the skisor-arbelas held in his left hand instead of a shield. It consisted of a hollow top, worn on the hand, with a crescent-shaped blade (reliably sharpened on all sides). With this weapon, he inflicted minor, but very bleeding wounds on the enemy. In addition to this weapon, this gladiator was armed with a short gladius sword, which he held in his right hand. Skisor armor consisted of a closed helmet, chain mail (Lorika gamata) or lamellar armor of Lorika segmentata, a bracer on the right hand (manica) and short leggings (ocreae). The skisor's helmet was without rats and bars, with a crest in the form of a fish's fin. The skisor, like the dimacher, was not armed with a shield.

Scissor was one of the most heavily armed types of gladiators. In the arena, the skisors fought either among themselves or against the retiarius. That is why, apparently, the helmet of the skisora ​​was similar to the helmet of the secutor - a streamlined shape with a solid folding visor and small holes for the eyes.

Arbelas

Arbelas was one of the most heavily armed types of gladiators. The weight of weapons reached 22-26 kg. The name arbelas comes from the Greek name for a semi-circular knife reminiscent of the weapon of this type of gladiator. Arbelas wears a short-sleeve chain mail, a closed helmet, a short sword, a manic leather bracer on his right hand, a tubular bracer with his weapon (arbelos) on his left hand, and short greaves on both legs.

Tertiary

Tertiary, tertiary(tertiarius) - a gladiator who fought the winner of a duel. The name comes from the word tertius - "third". Tertiarii could be "understudies" for the declared, but absent participants in the battle. They were also called "suppositories", "suppositions" (suppositicii) - "substitutes"

Other terms

• Venator(venator, literally - "hunter") - an artist of the ancient Roman circus, like a bestiary, specialized in baiting animals. However, the venator was not actually a gladiator, because he did not fight with animals, but only performed risky tricks with them, similar to a modern tamer.
• Gregory(gregarius) - beginner gladiator (from one year of training). Literally - "herd". The name comes from the fact that before the fights of experienced gladiators, group battles of beginners were often held.
• editor(editor) - a person who arranges gladiator fights at his own expense. An analogue of a modern sponsor or producer. Also called "munerarius" (munerarius).
• Lanista(lanista) - the owner of the gladiatorial school. He bought slaves for his school, taught them, and rented them out to an editor who played games. The profession of lanista was considered very profitable, but at the public graduation he was listed on a par with leno (owner of a brothel, “pimp”) as a “dealer in human meat”.
• Lorary(lorarius) - a circus attendant who urged on inexperienced gladiators or animals in the arena. The word lorarius itself comes from lorum ("leather belt", "whip"). In addition, the cleaning of the arena belonged to the duties of the loraries: they carried the dead and wounded gladiators, eliminated traces of blood, covering them with sand.
• Rudiarium(rudiarius) - gladiator, released. to freedom. The release could be a reward for unusual valor shown in the arena (for example, according to some sources, Spartacus was a rudiarium). The name comes from "rudis" (rudis) - a wooden sword, which was handed over to fired gladiators. Often rudiarii remained gladiators, in which case they were popular with the public. Those rudiaries who left fights could become trainers or judges in the arena.
• Tyro(tiro) is a gladiator who enters the arena for the first time.
• Triton(triton) - a student of the school of gladiators (up to 1-2 years of study).
• Veteran(veteranus) - a gladiator who fought several fights in the arena.

On one wall in Pompeii, you can read the words: "Celadus the Thracian - the hero of girls, making hearts beat." These words, which have come down to us through the centuries, are silent witnesses to the charm that still captivates our imagination. The afternoon sun illuminates the arena of the amphitheater, where the Thracian Celadus and other gladiators fight. They do not fight fearsome legionnaires or barbarian hordes. They kill each other for the pleasure of the public.

In the beginning, gladiators were prisoners of war and those sentenced to death. The laws of ancient Rome allowed them to participate in gladiator fights. In case of victory (with the money received), it was possible to redeem one's life. But not all gladiators were slaves or criminals. Among them were volunteers who were willing to risk their lives for thrill or fame. Their names were written on the walls, respectable citizens talked about them. For almost 600 years, the arena was one of the most popular entertainments in the Roman world. Almost no one opposed this spectacle. Everyone, from Caesar to the last plebeian, wanted to see bloodshed.

It is widely believed that gladiator fights were inspired by Etruscan funeral rituals. Nevertheless, it is known that at the funeral of Brutus Perus in 264 BC. Three duels of gladiators took place. This incident was recorded by the Greek-Syrian historian Nicholas of Damascus, who lived during the period of Emperor Augustus. Over the next hundred years, the custom of arranging battles between slaves at funerals spread. In 174 BC Titus Flamininus held munera - three-day fights, during which 74 gladiators fought.

They tried to celebrate Munera in December, at the same time as Saturnalia. As you know, Saturn was a deity "responsible" for self-sacrifice. At the same time, the muners were not just a number in the commemoration program. They also practiced fighting with animals - venations. Various wild animals brought from all over the empire were killed by specially trained fighters - venators. Venice served as a symbol of the subjugation of wild animals by Roman power. Fights involving lions, tigers and other dangerous predators showed that the power of Rome embraced not only people but also animals. Any culture that was not part of Rome was declared barbarian, the only purpose of which was to wait until it was conquered by Rome.

As more and more wealthy people became convinced that gladiator fights served great way to perpetuate the memory of the deceased, they more and more often included in their will a requirement to hold such a fight at their commemoration. Soon, a simple fight of several pairs of gladiators became boring to the public. In order to impress the people, it was necessary to arrange grandiose spectacles according to the number of fighters or according to the method of battle. Gradually, the munera became more spectacular and expensive. The fighters began to be equipped with armor, while the style of the armor often copied the style of any of the peoples conquered by Rome. Thus, the munera became a demonstration of the power of Rome.

Over time, the munera became so customary that a person who did not bequeath to arrange a battle after his death risked discrediting his name after death as a miser. Many hosted games in honor of their deceased ancestors. The public expected another fight after the death of one of the wealthy citizens. Suetonius described the case that in Pollentia (modern Pollenzo, near Turin), the public did not allow a former centurion to be buried until the heirs organized a battle. Moreover, it was not a simple disorder in the city, but a real rebellion that forced Tiberius to send troops into the city. One dead man in his will ordered to arrange a fight between his former homosexual lovers. Since all the lovers were young boys, it was decided to annul this clause of the will. Munera eventually developed into true gladiator fights, usually held in purpose-built arenas. The first arenas were built in the form of amphitheaters around the Romanum Forum. The stands were wooden, and the arena itself was covered with sand. Sand in Latin will be garena, hence the name of the entire structure.

The amphitheater built by Flavius, known as the Colosseum, was the first stone building of its kind. The floor of the arena was at first sandy, but then it was rebuilt, organizing a network of underground passages under it - hypogees. Various mechanical devices were located in the passages, facilitating a quick change of scenery in the arena. With the help of these moves, animals and gladiators were also released onto the stage.

Entering the amphitheater, the audience could buy various souvenirs. Bone or clay tessera plates served as entrance tickets. Tessers were distributed for free a few weeks before the start of the fighting. The audience was seated in their places by special ministers - locaria.

For wealthy citizens there were seated stands. There were standing stands for the plebs. The Colosseum also had a gallery where the poorest spectators gathered. It was a matter of honor to occupy a place proper to its status.

The tunnels leading to the stands were run by various "entrepreneurs" from food vendors to prostitutes. As the program progressed, the public's excitement grew. Classical writers describe the roar of the excited crowd as "the roar of a storm". Vendors also crowded the stands among the spectators, offering food, flags, and lists of gladiators. Betting was made on these lists. Ovid says that asking a neighbor to read a program was considered a plausible pretext for getting to know a girl. However, under Augustus, separate places were allocated for women. The front rows were occupied by senators, soldiers, married men, as well as students and teachers. The women were placed in the upper ranks.

The shape of the amphitheater reflected heat inward and sound outward. Any sound made by a gladiator was clearly audible in the stands, even in the very top rows. Hence the rule arose that gladiators should not make unnecessary cries and be silent even in case of injury. Even in the worst places, the spectators had a great view of the arena.

By the end of the II century BC. the battles that lasted several days in a row with the participation of more than one hundred gladiators did not surprise anyone. There were also people for whom the maintenance and training of gladiators became a profession. They were called Lanists. Often they were former gladiators themselves. The social status of the lanist was low, they were despised for making money on the death of other people, while remaining completely safe themselves. If gladiators were compared to prostitutes, then lanists can be compared to pimps. To give themselves a bit of respectability, the Lanists called themselves "negociator surname gladiatore", which in modern language can be translated as "commercial director of the gladiatorial troupe." The essence of their activity was that they found physically strong slaves in the slave markets, and preferably prisoners of war and even criminals, ransomed them, taught them all the tricks necessary for performing in the arena, and then rented them out to everyone who wanted to arrange gladiator fights.

Entering the ring, the gladiators had to proclaim: Ave Ceasar, morituri te salutant! - Those who go to death greet you, Caesar! According to tradition, before the start of the fight, the gladiator fighters were divided into pairs and the first demonstration fight began - prolusio, its participants did not fight for real, their weapons were wooden, the movements were more like a dance than the fight was accompanied by a lute or flute. At the end of the "lyrical introduction", the horn blew and announced that the first real battle was about to begin. Gladiators who changed their minds to fight were beaten, and sometimes even killed with whips.

Junior gladiators entered the battle in pairs, determined by lot. The weapons of the gladiators were demonstrated to the public in order to convince everyone that they were combat weapons. The determined couples dispersed around the arena to the sound of trumpets and the battle began. In the arena, in addition to the fighters, there were doctors who gave commands to the fighters, directing the course of the battles. In addition, slaves with whips and sticks stood ready to “cheer up” one of the gladiators who for some reason refused to fight at full strength. After the duel of inexperienced gladiators, the best fighters entered the arena.

If any of the gladiators received a serious wound and could not continue the fight, he raised his hand, showing surrender. From that moment on, his fate depended on the opinion of the audience. The defeated could be spared as a worthy fighter, or they could be doomed to death as a coward and clumsy. Until recently, it was believed that the audience expressed their attitude towards the vanquished with the help of thumb. If the finger is pointing up - spare, if down - finish off. Latest Research showed that the opposite was true. A raised finger meant "put it on the blade", and lowered - "a weapon in the ground." Considering the fact that not very skilled gladiators were the first to perform, the fate of the vanquished was a foregone conclusion. The corpses of gladiators were removed from the arena using wheeled carts. The slaves removed the armor from the dead. These slaves had their own small informal "business". They collected the blood of slain gladiators and sold it to epileptics as the best remedy for their illness. After the duel of inexperienced gladiators, the best fighters entered the arena.

In spectacular battles, when people fought with animals, the duel was considered over only if one of the opponents was killed: a man by a beast or a beast by a man.

Gladiators were at the lowest rung of the social ladder, and after the uprising of Spartacus, the attitude towards gladiators became especially wary. Soldiers and guards watched the gladiators, stopping attempts of disobedience or suicide. Prisoners of war sent to the gladiatorial school wore slave collars and shackles that hindered movement. Volunteers, unlike slaves, did not wear chains. Free people, unlike slaves, did not pose a threat to society. Freed slaves in their status approached free citizens. Petronius the Arbiter, in his Satyricon, extols the virtues of a traveling band of gladiators, saying: “The three-day show is the best I have ever seen. These were not ordinary grunts, but for the most part free people.

Sometimes offspring of noble families also got into the arena. Petronius the Arbiter mentions a woman from a senatorial family who became a female gladiator. Lucian of Samosata, who hated gladiator fights, tells of Sisinnius, a man who decided to join the gladiators in order to win 10,000 drachmas and pay a ransom for his friend.

Some people went to the gladiators out of a desire to get thrill. Even emperors pecked at this bait. Emperor Commodus (180-192 AD) was a fan of gladiator fights since childhood. This made it possible for the political opponents of his father - Marcus Aurelius - to say that the emperor's wife had a young heir from the gladiator. One way or another, Commodus spent almost all his time with gladiators. As an adult, he began to participate in battles as a secutor. By the time of his death, Commodus had managed to win more than 700 fights, but Commodus's contemporary Victor notes that the opponents of the emperor were armed with lead weapons.

The bulk of the professional arena fighters were from gladiatorial schools. During the reign of Octavian Augustus (about 10 BC), there were 4 imperial schools in Rome: Great, Morning, where bestiaries were trained - gladiators who fought with wild animals, the Gaulish school and the Dacian school. While studying at the school, all gladiators were well fed and qualifiedly treated. An example of this is the fact that the famous ancient Roman physician Galen worked for a long time at the Great Imperial School.

Gladiators slept in pairs in small closets with an area of ​​4-6 sq.m. The workouts, which lasted from morning to evening, were very intense. Under the guidance of a teacher former gladiator, beginners were trained in fencing. Each of them was given a wooden sword and a shield woven from willow. The chaotic ringing of metal evoked anguish in the audience, so the instructors trained the gladiators to fight not only spectacularly, but also effectively. In the Roman army, it was customary for beginners to practice on wooden palus poles 1.7 m high. In gladiator schools, they preferred to use effigies stuffed with straw, which gave a more visual representation of the enemy. To strengthen the muscles, the next iron training weapon after the wooden one was specially made 2 times heavier than the combat weapon.

When a beginner has adequately mastered the basics of martial art, he, depending on his abilities and physical training, were distributed into specialized groups of one type or another of gladiators. The least capable students fell into the indabats. They were armed with only two daggers, without any additional protection, completed this equipment with a helmet with two holes that did not match the eyes at all. Therefore, the indabats were forced to fight each other almost blindly, brandishing their weapons at random. The attendants "helped" them, pushing them from behind with red-hot iron rods. The public always had a lot of fun looking at the unfortunate, and this part of the gladiatorial fights was considered by the Romans to be the most amusing.

Gladiators, like Roman soldiers, had their own charter, some historians call it a code of honor, but in fact this is a conventional name. because initially, a gladiator, by definition, was not a free person, and Roman slaves had no concept of honor as such. When a person got into a gladiatorial school, especially if before that he was free, he needed to perform a number of actions, in many ways purely formal, of course, in order to be legally considered a gladiator. Gladiators took an oath and took an oath similar to a military one, according to which they were to be considered “formally dead” and transferred their lives to the property of the gladiatorial school in which they lived, studied, trained and died.

There were a number of unspoken rules and conventions that every gladiator had to adhere to and not violate them under any circumstances. The gladiator always had to remain silent during the duel - the only way with which he could contact the public were gestures. The second unspoken item was the observance of certain "rules" of dignity, which can be compared with the rules of the samurai. A fighter - a gladiator had no right to cowardice and fear of death. If a fighter felt that he was dying, he had to open his face to the enemy so that he would finish him off, looking at his eyes, or cut his own throat, removing his helmet and opening his face and eyes to the audience, and they should have seen what was in them there is not an iota of fear. The third law was that the gladiator could not choose his own opponent, obviously, this was done so that the fighters in the arena did not settle their personal scores and grievances. Entering the arena, the gladiator did not know to the last with whom he would have to fight.

Among the Roman aristocrats, it was fashionable to have their own personal gladiators, who not only earned the owner money by performing, but also served as personal guards, which was extremely relevant during the civil unrest of the late Republic. In this respect, Julius Caesar outdid everyone, who at one time contained up to 2 thousand gladiator bodyguards, who made up a real army. It must be said that they became gladiators not only under the coercion of the slave owner or by a court sentence to the arena, but also absolutely voluntarily, in pursuit of fame and fortune.

Despite all the dangers of this profession, a simple but strong guy from the Roman social bottom really had a chance to get rich. And although the chances of dying on the blood-soaked sand of the arena were much greater, many took the risk. The most successful of them, in addition to the love of the Roman mob, and sometimes the Roman matrons, received solid cash prizes from fans and organizers of the fights, as well as interest on bets. In addition, the Roman spectators often threw money, jewelry and other expensive trinkets into the arena to the especially beloved winner, which also accounted for a significant share of the income. Emperor Nero, for example, once gave the gladiator Spiculus a whole palace. And many of the famous fighters gave fencing lessons to everyone who wanted to, receiving a very decent fee for this.

However, luck in the arena smiled at very few - the audience wanted to see blood and death, so the gladiators had to fight seriously, bringing the crowd to a frenzy.

Catchers of animals worked tirelessly, devastating the Roman provinces in Africa and Asia, as well as adjacent territories. Thousands of professionals were engaged in this extremely dangerous, but equally profitable business. In addition to the fighting people, hundreds and thousands of lions, tigers, wolves, leopards, bears, panthers, wild boars, wild bulls, bison, elephants, hippos, rhinos, antelopes, deer, giraffes, monkeys perished in the arenas. Once the catchers managed to bring even polar bears to Rome! Apparently, there were simply no impossible tasks for them.

All these animals were victims of bestiary gladiators. Their training was much longer than the classical gladiators. Pupils of the famous Morning School, which received such a name due to the fact that animal persecution took place in the morning, were taught not only the handling of weapons, but also training, and also introduced them to the characteristics and habits of different animals.

Ancient Roman trainers reached unprecedented heights in their art: bears walked on a tightrope, and lions placed a bestiary under the feet of a driven, but still alive hare, monkeys rode ferocious Hyrcanian hounds, and deer were harnessed to chariots. These amazing tricks were innumerable. But when the satiated crowd demanded blood, fearless venators appeared on the arena (from the Latin wenator - hunter), who knew how to kill animals not only various types weapons, but with bare hands. It was considered the highest chic among them to throw a cloak over the head of a lion or leopard, wrap it up, and then kill the beast with one blow of a sword or spear.

Gladiator fights were different. There were fights of single pairs, and sometimes several tens or even hundreds of pairs fought at the same time. Sometimes whole performances were played out in the arena, introduced into the practice of mass entertainment by Julius Caesar. So, in a matter of minutes, grandiose scenery was erected, depicting the walls of Carthage, and gladiators, dressed and armed, like legionnaires and Carthaginians, represented the assault on the city. Or a whole forest of freshly cut trees grew in the arena, and the gladiators depicted the attack of the Germans on the same legionnaires from an ambush. The fantasy of the directors of the ancient Roman shows knew no bounds.

And although it was extremely difficult to surprise the Romans with something, the emperor Claudius, who ruled in the middle of the 1st century, succeeded quite well. The naumachia (staging of a naval battle) embodied on his orders was of such magnitude that it was able to capture the imagination of all the inhabitants of the Eternal City, young and old. Although naumachia were arranged quite rarely, as they were very expensive even for emperors and required careful development.

The first Naumachia was held in 46 BC. Julius Caesar. Then, a huge artificial lake was dug out on the Field of Mars in Rome to conduct a naval battle. This performance was attended by 16 galleys, on which there were 4,000 rowers and 2,000 gladiator soldiers. It seemed that it was no longer possible to arrange a larger spectacle, but in 2 BC. the first Roman emperor Octavian Augustus, after a year of preparation, presented the Romans with naumachia with the participation of 24 ships and 3 thousand soldiers, not counting the rowers, who played out the battle between the Greeks and the Persians at Salamis.

Only the aforementioned emperor Claudius managed to beat this record. For the naumachia conceived by him, Futsin Lake, located 80 kilometers from Rome, was chosen. No other nearby body of water simply could accommodate 50 real combat triremes and biremes, the crews of which amounted to 20,000 criminals sentenced to the arena. To do this, Claudius devastated all city prisons, putting on ships everyone who could carry weapons.

And in order to discourage so many criminals gathered in one place from organizing a rebellion, the lake was surrounded by troops. The naval battle took place in that part of the lake where the hills formed a natural amphitheatre. There was no shortage of spectators: about 500 thousand people - almost the entire adult population of Rome, settled down on the slopes.

The ships, divided into two fleets, depicted the confrontation between the Rhodians and the Sicilians. The battle, which began at about 10 am, ended only at four o'clock in the afternoon, when the last "Sicilian" ship surrendered. The Roman historian Tacitus wrote: "The morale of the fighting criminals was not inferior to that of real warriors." The waters of the lake were red with blood, not to mention the wounded, only more than 3 thousand people were killed. After the battle, Claudius pardoned all the survivors, with the exception of a few crews who, in his opinion, evaded the battle. The audience was absolutely delighted with what they saw. None of the subsequent emperors managed to “outplay” Claudius. It is no coincidence that literally the whole city mourned his death, because he, like no other, perhaps with the exception of Nero, knew how to entertain the public. And even though during his reign, Claudius showed himself far from brilliant statesman, this did not prevent him from being perhaps the most revered emperor among the people.

It happened that the fight dragged on, and both wounded gladiators could not defeat each other for a long time. Then the audience could stop the fight themselves and demand from the editor - the organizer of the games - to let both fighters out of the arena. And the editor obeyed the "voice of the people." The same thing happened if the gladiator so pleased the public with his skill and courage that she demanded the immediate delivery of a wooden training sword - rudis - to him as a symbol of complete liberation not only from fights in the arena, but also from slavery. Of course, this concerned only prisoners of war and slaves, but not volunteers.

The name of the gladiator Flamma has survived to this day, during whose career admiring spectators demanded a wooden sword to be handed over to him four times, and he refused all four times! It is possible that Flamma showed such unheard of stubbornness in the pursuit of fame and money. One way or another, but he succeeded, he left the arena voluntarily, more or less unharmed, and at a fairly mature age and being the owner of a decent fortune.

Gladiator fights were not alien to the most educated people of that time. Cicero, for example, assessed these games as follows: “It is useful for people to see that slaves can fight courageously. If even a simple slave can show courage, then what should the Romans be like? In addition, the games accustom the warlike people to the form of murder and prepare them for war. Pliny, Tacitus and many other prominent Roman writers and thinkers were ardent admirers of gladiatorial spectacles. The only exception was, perhaps, the philosopher Seneca, who in every way advocated for their prohibition, which not least led to his forced suicide on the orders of his crowned pupil Nero.

Nearly all Roman emperors sought to outdo each other in the grandiosity of their games in order to win the love of the crowd. Emperor Titus Flavius ​​at the opening of the Colosseum, which accommodated up to 80 thousand spectators and immediately became the main arena of Ancient Rome, ordered to kill in various ways 17 thousand Jews who had worked on its construction for ten years. Emperor Domitian, being a virtuoso in archery, loved to amuse the audience by hitting the head of a lion or a bear with arrows so that the arrows seemed to become horns for them. And naturally horned animals - deer, bulls, bison, and so on, he killed with a shot in the eye. I must say that the Roman people loved this ruler very much.

Met among the Roman emperors and merry fellows. A very funny story is connected with the name of Gallienus, for example. One jeweler, who sold counterfeit gems and was sentenced to the arena for this, was driven out by the bestiaries to the middle of the arena and placed in front of a closed lion's cage. The unfortunate man, with bated breath, was waiting for an inevitable and, moreover, terrible death, and then the cage door swung open, and a chicken came out of it. Unable to withstand the stress, the jeweler fainted. When the audience laughed enough, Gallien ordered to announce: "This man was deceiving, therefore he was deceived." Then the jeweler was brought to his senses and released on all four sides.

By the beginning of the 4th century, gladiator fights and animal baiting began to gradually decline. It was a time when the once Great Roman Empire began to literally languish under the blows of numerous "barbarian" tribes. The situation was aggravated by the ongoing economic crisis - the Romans themselves practically did not work, and imported goods were constantly rising in price. Therefore, the Roman emperors of that period had enough worries, in addition to the arrangement of expensive games. And, nevertheless, they continued, although already without the former scope. Finally, gladiator fights were banned 72 years before the fall of the Roman Empire.