THE OLYMPIC GAMES VICTORATED BY WAR (1916, 1940, 1944)
Received on January 19, 2015
Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor N.Yu. Melnikova1
1 Russian State University physical culture, youth sports and tourism (GTSOLIFK), Moscow
OLYMPIC GAMES THWARTED BY WAR (1916, 1940, 1944)
Ph.D., Professor N.Yu. Mel"nikova1
1 Russian State University of Physical Culture, Sport, Youth and Tourism (GTsOLIFK), Moscow
annotation
Throughout the history of modern Olympic movement the cycle of the Olympic Games was violated only three times - in 1916, 1940 and 1944. The article examines in detail the factors due to which the Games of the Olympiad and the Olympic Winter Games, the decision to hold which was made by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), did not take place at the scheduled time.
World War II also caused the Games of the Olympiad and the Olympic Winter Games in 1940 and 1944 to take place. did not take place. It is noteworthy that in the chronology of the Games of the Olympiad and the Olympic Winter Games, then obvious differences appeared. The Games of the XII and XIII Olympiads nevertheless received their serial numbers in the chronological table, and the failed Winter Games of 1940 and 1944. not included in the chronology. Thus, the V Olympic Winter Games were held in 1948 in the Swiss city of St. Moritz.
Keywords: international Olympic movement, world war, internal and external factors, sports and politics, complex international situation.
In the history of the modern Olympic movement the cycle of the Olympic Games was broken only three times - in 1916, 1940 and 1944. The factors due to which the Games of Olympiads and the Olympic Winter Games, the decision to hold which was accepted by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), were not held as scheduled are considered in the paper.
The preparation for the Olympics Games in 1916 was carried out before the start of large-scale hostilities that engulfed the world.
In 1913, the construction of the Olympic Stadium was completed in Berlin. The Organizing Committee designed medals and badges, issued a poster and a commemorative medal on the occasion of the election of the German capital to host the Olympic games VI.
However, the marked aggravation of the international situation and the beginning of the First World War were the reasons that the Olympic cycle was interrupted for eight years.
The Second World War was also the reason that the Games of the Olympiad and the Olympic Winter Games in 1940 and 1944 did not take place. It is noteworthy that clear differences appeared then in the history of the Games of the Olympiad and the Olympic Winter Games. The Games of the Olympiads XII and XIII have yet received serial numbers in the chronological table, and the Winter Games in 1940 and 1944 that did not take place were not chronologized. Thus, the V Olympic Winter Games were held in 1948 in the Swiss town of St. Moritz.
Keywords: international Olympic movement, world war, internal and external factors, sport and politics, complicated international situation.
Introduction. The modern Olympic movement over its more than a century of history has turned from a utopia, as it seemed to many skeptics then, into a major global event. According to the plan of the French baron Pierre de Coubertin, who is rightfully considered its founder, the revived Olympic Games should have become a factor uniting athletes from all over the world on the principles of peace, friendship and equality.
However, unfortunately, in real life, these wonderful ideas were not always embodied.
The purpose of the study is a historical analysis of social factors that did not exclude the possibility of holding the Games of the Olympiad and the Olympic Winter Games during the world wars.
Results of the study and their discussion. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. Olympians competed almost
unnoticed both by the international press and in the countries themselves that took over their organization. But gradually everything more states were involved in the Olympic movement.
The Games of the I Olympiad were held in 1896 in Athens, and almost three decades later, in 1924, the debut of the Olympic Winter Games took place in the French mountain resort of Chamonix.
In the entire history of the modern Olympic movement, the cycle of holding the Olympic Games was violated only three times - in 1916, 1940 and 1944, and the world wars were always the reason for this.
The Games of the V Olympiad were held in Stockholm in 1912 with great success. The International Olympic Movement gained strength every year and became the most important event in world sports.
At the 14th session of the IOC in Stockholm in July 1912, Berlin was chosen to host the Games of the VI Olympiad. Budapest also claimed this right, but in the end, preference was given to the capital of Germany.
It is noteworthy that competitions in winter sports were also planned as part of the 1916 Olympic Games: figure skating, ice skating and cross-country skiing, which were supposed to take place in February 1916 in the town of BlackForest (Black Forest). The decision to include these winter views sport in the program of the Olympic Games was adopted at the Olympic Congress in Paris in 1914.
Preparations for the 1916 Olympic Games were carried out before the start of large-scale hostilities that swept the world.
In 1913, construction was completed in Berlin Olympic Stadium. The organizing committee prepared sketches of medals and badges, issued a poster and a commemorative medal on the occasion of the election of the German capital as the venue for the Games of the VI Olympiad.
However, the sharp aggravation of the international situation and the outbreak of the First World War were the reasons that the Olympic cycle was interrupted for eight years.
Even if the Games did not take place, their number is still preserved, said Pierre de Coubertin. Therefore, despite the fact that the Olympic athletes could not gather in Berlin in 1916, there is no dash in the chronology of the Olympic Games, it says:
The Games of the VI Olympiad in 1916 did not take place.
Nevertheless, there was a country in the world that marked them with the release of a poster. With this action, the Dutch Olympic Committee sought to show confidence that the Olympic movement would live on.
The poster depicts the Greek quadriga and indicates the year and place of the symbolic sports festival- Days of the Olympics from August 31 to September 3, 1916 at the stadium in Amsterdam.
World War II also caused the Games of the Olympiad and the Olympic Winter Games in 1940 and 1944 to take place. did not take place. It is noteworthy that in the chronology of the Games of the Olympiad and the Olympic Winter Games, then obvious differences appeared. The Games of the XII and XIII Olympiads nevertheless received their serial numbers in the chronological table, and the failed Winter Games of 1940 and 1944. not included in the chronology. Thus, the V Olympic Winter Games were held in 1948 in the Swiss city of St. Moritz.
The reason for the differences in approaches to the chronology was probably that the birth of the Olympic Winter Games took place as a result of many years of discussions, disputes and complex agreements, which led to significant differences in the organization, symbols, chronology of the summer and winter competitions of the Olympians.
At first, 14 cities claimed to host the Games of the XII Olympiad in 1940: Alexandria, Athens, Barcelona, Budapest, Buenos Aires, Dublin, Lausanne, London, Montreal, Rio de Janeiro, Rome, Toronto, Tokyo, Helsinki.
At the 34th session of the IOC, held in Oslo in 1935, the possibility of holding the next Games of the Olympiad and the Olympic Winter Games in one country was discussed, and candidate cities were considered. A year later, at the 36th session in Berlin, Tokyo was elected the capital of the Games of the XII Olympiad.
A year later, at the IOC session in Warsaw, a discussion arose about the resolution of 1925 on the preference for holding the next Games of the Olympiad and Winter Games in one country. A number of IOC members advocated that small countries that are unable to host winter and summer Olympic competitions, nevertheless, can high level hold the Winter Games, since these competitions are significantly inferior to the summer competitions in terms of the number of sports and participants.
As a result, the IOC decided to give preference to Japan and named Sapporo, located on the island of Hokkaido, in Northern Japan, as the capital of the Olympic Winter Games. However, Sapporo was then not destined to host the Olympians: the city had to wait until 1972 for the opportunity to host the Winter Games.
In 1938 the situation in the world heated up. The representative of Japan, who arrived in Cairo for the 38th session of the IOC in March 1938, nevertheless stated that Japan was preparing to host the 1940 Games, despite the military conflict with China. But few believed in the favorable development of events in Southeast Asia.
At a confidential meeting of IOC leaders at the end of the session, it was decided that IOC President Henri de Baillet-Latour would contact the authorities and sports figures of Helsinki and Oslo to find out the possibility of holding the games in these cities in the event of Tokyo and Sapporo's refusal.
After Japan's official refusal, the IOC Executive Committee, taking into account the current situation, decided to hold the 1940 Olympic Games in Helsinki, and the Winter Games in Oslo.
The Finnish capital was quite capable of hosting competitions of this magnitude: the existing sports facilities were prepared and new sports facilities were built, the Organizing Committee for the preparation for the games was created, posters, badges, and medals were issued.
BOGOLYUBOVA NATALIA MIKHAILOVNA, NIKOLAEVA YULIA VADIMOVNA - 2012
Konikov V.I. - 2012
Games of the VI Olympiad Berlin, Germany, 1916
“Even if the Games did not take place, their number is still preserved,” said Pierre de Coubertin. And despite the fact that due to the First World War of 1914-1918 the athletes could not come to their holiday in Berlin, there is no dash in the history of the Olympic Games, it is written there: the Games of the VI Olympiad did not take place. Preparations for them were carried out long before the war. In Berlin in 1913, the construction of a large Olympic stadium was completed. The organizing committee issued a poster, sketches of medals and badges were prepared, but things did not go beyond this.
Price 500
Serious preparations were made for the 1916 Olympics in many countries. This is evidenced not only by the materials published in the press of those years, but also icons dedicated to the Games of the VI Olympiad. Let's give just one example. After a huge sports landing in Stockholm, Russia decided to further increase the composition of its team for the next Games. Immediately after the return of athletes from the Swedish capital, preparations for new Olympic starts began throughout the country. The seriousness of the intentions of the Russian sports leadership is also evidenced by the badge - a miniature white shield bordered by a laurel wreath with the image of a runner and the inscription in Russian: "Olympic Games 1916".
Although the Games in Berlin did not take place, there was a country that nevertheless celebrated with the release poster the failed Olympics. With this action, the Dutch Olympic Committee wanted to show that despite world war, the Olympic movement will live.
In connection with the outbreak of World War I, the VI Olympic Games in 1916 were not held, and athletes of the new state - the USSR - were not allowed to participate in the VII Olympic Games in 1920. The removal of the Soviet state from the international Olympic movement lasted more than 30 years, and only in 1952 at the XV Olympic Games in Helsinki, after the creation of the USSR Olympic Committee in 1951, the country's team was officially admitted to the Olympic competitions.
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When the first revived Olympic Games were held in Athens in 1896, few people thought that the proclaimed principles of Olympism "sport without war" and "sport without politics" would face the harsh realities of the First World War and the post-war period two decades later. World sport competitions turned out to be an excellent tool to prove their superiority - no worse than on the battlefield.
The failed 1916 Olympics
The Olympic Games, revived in 1896, did not immediately attract the attention of politicians. In some countries there were no sports traditions, and sometimes sports as such, because the games, due to their inaccessibility, attracted little attention from the public. But gradually the significance of the games as an event that consolidates the nation, a "mega-event" that has a huge propaganda effect inside and outside the country, was realized by the leadership of European countries.
It was precisely the considerations of international prestige set out by the leadership of the German Imperial Committee for the Olympic Games (Deutschen Reichsausschuß für Olympische Spiele - DRAfOS) that convinced Kaiser Wilhelm II and his government to allocate the necessary funds for the construction of the Olympic Stadium in Berlin and deploy in 1912-1914. an extensive campaign to train coaches and athletes in Germany. Berlin, which had been bidding for the games ever since their revival in 1912, finally won the selection and was to host the 1916 games.
Grand opening of the Berlin Olympic Stadium, June 1913
Built for future games, the Berlin stadium was inaugurated in 1913 during the celebrations on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of the Kaiser's accession to the throne. The line between a sporting event and a military parade at the celebrations was very thin - in the arena of the stadium, in fact, both took place at the same time. However, the generals, officials from DRAfOS, who were also military, like the Kaiser, did not see any contradiction in this.
Future games were discussed at the Olympic Congress in February 1914 in Paris. It seemed that many contradictions between the Germans and the French disappeared, and sport united everyone. Many German congress delegates, writes historian Volker Kluge, accepted an invitation to visit Reims, where they examined sports school- Collège d'athlètes, - in which French athletes were trained. Already at the end of the year, Reims and its sports facilities were in the zone of battles that practically wiped the city off the face of the earth, and the athletic union had to be forgotten.
At the very end of June 1914, almost on the eve of the tragic events in Sarajevo, preliminary games were opened at the Berlin stadium, in which only German athletes took part. But the war that began in August put an end to all Olympic preparations. The leadership of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and DRAfOS for some time expected that "the war would last until Christmas", but the unfolding of the trench warfare in the second half of 1914 left no hope. Baron Pierre de Coubertin, the "father" of the modern Olympic Games, who defended the peaceful and neutral nature of the competition and even moved the headquarters of the IOC to neutral Switzerland, ended up volunteering for the French army.
Parade of German athletes during the opening ceremony of the stadium in Berlin
The fate of the VI Olympic Games in Berlin was decided - they were canceled, while remaining in the general numbering. There was a small possibility of moving them to a neutral country, but the IOC did not agree with this. DRAfOS was essentially disbanded, and the last major sports events Kaiser Germany were held in 1916 during the games in memory of the deceased chairman of the German Olympic Committee, Viktor von Podbelsky. Instead of DRAfOS, the "German Imperial Committee for physical education', who claimed that "the war, as far as can be seen in the future, made it impossible for [many succeeding] generations to continue the old Olympic Games". True, these words were later discarded, although they testified to a fierce desire to establish new order in everything. Nevertheless, the preparations of the Germans were not in vain - subsequently the Berlin stadium was rebuilt and hosted the famous 1936 Olympic Games, already arranged by the Nazi regime.
1919 Inter-Allied Games in Paris
Athletes could not stay away from the war, and during 1914-1918. hundreds and even thousands of sports competitions were held on both sides of the front. Is in the sports annals great war and legendary events - for example, a football match between the Germans and the British during the so-called Christmas truce 1914
The millions of mobilized men and women volunteers who found themselves in the front line after the armistice in November 1918 yearned for detente. Representatives of the American Expeditionary Forces (American Expeditionary Forces) in Europe and figures from the Christian Union of Young Men (Young Men Christian Association) put forward the idea of holding Inter-Allied Games in Paris (Inter-Allied Games).
Serbian delegation at the opening of the Pershing Olympics. From the side, the action looked like an ordinary military parade.
During the preparations, the resistance of the French authorities had to be overcome, who finally agreed when it turned out that the Americans were taking over the financing of the event, and the IOC, which was very sensitive to the participation of professional athletes in the Olympic Games and wanted to prevent any violation of its code.
Be that as it may, at a stadium specially built by the American military in Paris from June 22 to July 6, 1919, the Inter-Allied Games were held, tacitly called the “Pershing Olympics” after the commander of the American contingent. The largest number of athletes was from the USA and France. Historian Thierry Terre expresses the opinion that these games were, first of all, a necessary and very effective measure for the rehabilitation of military personnel who had lost the habit of peaceful life, as well as an important political event, with the help of which at least one new state that emerged from the ruins of dead empires, - Czechoslovakia - was able to declare itself on an international scale.
1920 Olympics in Antwerp
After the Armistice of Compiègne in 1918 and the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, which clearly indicated Germany's responsibility for unleashing the war, the Germans and their allies became persona non grata in international public organizations as well. The decision to hold the VII Olympic Games in Antwerp, Belgium, of course, fit into the general policy of punishing Germany, although it was accompanied, according to historian Karl Lennartz, by a violation of the IOC code and the very philosophy of the Olympic Games, which puts them above any political conflicts. Pierre de Coubertin, who attended the meeting of the IOC in Lausanne, Switzerland in 1919, later regretted the decisions taken there, but admitted that in connection with the election of Antwerp, common sense prescribed not to let the Germans go there.
Dozens of doves released into the air to mark the opening of the Antwerp Olympics
Athletes from Russia did not come to Belgium either. At the Inter-Allied Games in Paris, there were only victorious powers, and Russia, which withdrew from the war in March 1918, was not represented in 1918-1919. not at any major victory celebration. When discussing the composition of the participants in the Antwerp Olympics, the IOC took into account that there was no representative from Soviet Russia on the committee, and Lev Urusov, who represented the Russian Empire, could not do anything for emigrants who could not represent a non-existent state. Later, in the 1920s, Urusov also unsuccessfully persuaded the IOC to allow two teams, one from the USSR and one from emigrants, to compete. However, this was hampered by existing political differences, although Vsevobuch (the department of general military training), who oversaw sports events in the RSFSR, for his part, also tried to get an invitation to Antwerp and other Olympics.
The very idea of holding the Olympics in Belgium arose as early as 1912 and was vigorously supported by the Belgian Olympic Committee and businessmen at the IOC congress in Paris in 1914, although the congress gave more preference to Budapest. In 1919, at the meeting of the IOC, which put an end to the participation of the former Central Powers in the Olympic Games, the decision to hold the games in Antwerp was greeted with enthusiasm - this was another reason to remove the Germans from the competition, since their participation could, de fact, cause unrest among the Belgians, former under German occupation for four years. Budapest, too, of course, had no chance. The Entente governments believed that Belgium needed to be rewarded with something "for heroism and courage", and the passionate desire of the Belgians, who found funds for the construction of the necessary infrastructure, played a role.
British delegation at the opening of the Antwerp Olympics
However, not only financial problems, ultimately somehow resolved through loans and funding from the state budget (the games ended with a deficit of 600,000 Belgian francs), interfered with the Olympics. Both during the preparation and during the implementation, there were disagreements between state institutions, national sports organizations, local government and commercial associations. According to sports historian Roland Renson, it was primarily a few local businessmen who benefited from the Olympics. In particular, the lion's share of the contracts was received by Antwerp football club Beerschot, who has achieved the restructuring of his stadium and the improvement of the urban infrastructure around it. Even Coubertin, in his welcoming speech, reproached for the "mercantilism" that games had become infected with and warned against their further commercialization.
With everything else, too, there were certain problems. The city did not have time, despite millions of loans, to properly prepare for the games. There were problems with sports facilities- Runners complained about the lanes, swimmers complained about the pool, and rowers complained about the water channels. There were not enough places to accommodate athletes and guests of the games - as Ronald Renson noted, "everything was based more on bravado and improvisation than on a preliminary plan".
The famous Finnish athlete Paavo Nurmi has just won the 10,000 meters race, August 20, 1920
Observers and historians have noted the unprecedented ritualization of the games. The war, of course, left its mark on their opening and closing ceremonies. On the morning of the opening day, a solemn mass was held in the Antwerp Cathedral in memory of the fallen, which was held by the hero of the Belgian resistance to the German occupation, Cardinal Desiree-Joseph Mercier. The Belgian King Albert arrived at the opening ceremony in his army commander's uniform. Simultaneously with militaristic and memorial symbols, there were also symbols of pacifism, but in a context that made it possible to doubt the desire to end the war as soon as possible. Thus, the doves of peace were released into the sky by soldiers and scouts in uniform under the thunder of artillery salute, the athletes were also mostly in military uniform, there were many veterans in the stands, etc. It is widely known that the indispensable attributes of the Olympic movement - the flag and the oath - were presented to the public in Antwerp. With this, the IOC and Coubertin tried to at least partially compensate for the military nature of the ceremonies.
At the Inter-Allied Games in Paris in 1919, the Americans were the first in the standings, and the French were the second - they probably did not have strong rivals. At the same time, the scoring provoked a big scandal. In Antwerp, in 1920, teams appeared that showed unexpectedly high results. So, the team of Finland showed itself superbly, becoming the fourth in team standings. The first three places were taken by the USA, Sweden and Great Britain.
In 1920, tug of war was quite olympic view sports
Separately, it is worth mentioning the attendance of games. The Belgian public, as Ronald Renson notes, showed no interest in such "exotic" sports as hockey or rugby, honoring only swimming, boxing and football with their attention. However, at the final football match the Belgian and Czechoslovakian teams, the stadium for 40,000 spectators was packed to capacity, and the victory of the Belgian team was celebrated in the country with almost more enthusiasm than the end of the war and occupation.
Alas, the 1920 Olympic Games and the 1919 Inter-Allied Games that preceded them clearly showed that big sport there is no politics without it. international Olympic Committee voluntarily or unwittingly, within a few years after the revival of the Olympics, it turned into a place for resolving disputes between rival military-political blocs, and the games themselves became a means of generating income for a narrow group of people admitted to contracts.
Literature:
- Encyclopedia of the Modern Olympic Movement / ed. Findling J.E., Pelle K.D. – Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004
- Kluge V. Cancelled but still counted, and never annulled: the Games of 1916 // Journal of Olympic History. 2014. No. 2. p.9-17
- Lennartz K. The Exclusion of the Central Empires from the Olympic Games in 1920 // Global and Cultural Critique: Problematizing the Olympic Games – London, Ontartio, Canada: University of Western Ontario. International Center for Olympic Studies, 1998
- Lindsay K. Politics of Sport: The 1920 Olympic Games // World War I Centenary: Continuations and Beginnings (http://ww1centenary.oucs.ox.ac.uk)
- Molzberger A. Olympic Games 1916 // International Encyclopedia of the First World War (https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net)
- Renson R., den Hollander M. Sport and business in the city: the Antwerp Olympic Games of 1920 and the urban elite // Olympika: The International Journal of Olympic Studies. 1997. Vol.6. p.73-83
- Terret T. The Military "Olympics" of 1919: Sport, Diplomacy and Sport Politics in the Aftermath of World War One // Journal Of Olympic History. 2006. Vol. 14, No. 2. p.22-31
- Vanraepenbusch K. Olympic Games 1920 // International Encyclopedia of the First World War (https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net)
- The inter-allied games, Paris, 22nd June to 6th July, 1919 / ed. Wythe G., Hanson J.M. - Paris: Société anonyme de publications periodiques, 1919