Physical training (both general and special) is carried out in the process of sports training.

The term "sports training" largely coincides in its content with the term "training of athletes". However, they must be distinguished. Athlete training is a broader concept.

sports training- this is the expedient use of knowledge, means, methods and conditions, which allows to influence the development of an athlete and provide the necessary degree of readiness for sports achievements. Sports training includes the physical, technical, tactical, mental aspects of an athlete's training.

sports training- this is that part of the athlete's training, which is built on the basis of the exercise method. For example, if an athlete performs any physical exercises, this means that sports training is carried out during the preparation. If he studies the features of the competitive activity of opponents by watching videos, then in this case the preparation is carried out, but the training is not. The positive effect of training should be expressed in an increased level of functional capabilities of the athlete's body, general and special performance. The functional state of an athlete, his fitness is the main object of control in the process of sports training. In turn, the athlete's training system includes such processes as: competition, sports training, material and information support for training conditions.

In training, and especially in competitive activity, none of the aspects of sports training is manifested in isolation. They are combined into a complex multifunctional process aimed at achieving the highest sports results.

Technical training- teaching the technique of actions performed in competitions or serving as means of training. In the process of technical training, an athlete masters the technique of the chosen sport, masters the appropriate motor skills and abilities, bringing them to the highest possible degree of perfection.

tactical training athlete involves the assimilation theoretical foundations sports tactics, practical mastering of tactical techniques, their combinations, variants, education of tactical thinking and other abilities that determine tactical mastery.

mental preparation. The main content of mental training is the education of volitional abilities: purposefulness, determination and courage, perseverance and perseverance, endurance and self-control, independence and initiative. Mental preparation is carried out in the process of training with gradually increasing difficulties and in competitive conditions.

Physical training. As mentioned above, physical training is divided into general and special physical training. Each sport has its own specific requirements for the physical fitness of an athlete - the level of development of individual physical qualities, functionality and physique. Therefore, there are certain differences in the content and methods of physical training in a particular sport, among athletes of different ages and qualifications. The ratio of GPP and SPP in the training process depends on the tasks to be solved, age, qualification and individual characteristics of the athlete, sport, stages and periods training process. In the process of long-term training, with the growth of the athlete's skill, the proportion of SPP funds increases and, accordingly, the amount of GPP funds decreases. The effectiveness of the training process can be determined by the quality of such concepts as fitness, readiness, sports form.

Fitness of an athlete is characterized by the degree of functional adaptation of the body to the training loads presented, which is formed as a result of systematic physical exercises and contributes to an increase in working capacity.

Training is divided into general and special.

General fitness is formed under the influence of exercises of a general developmental nature, which increase the functional capabilities of the body.

Special fitness is acquired as a result of performing a specific type of muscular activity in the chosen sport.

Training is always focused on a specific type of athlete's specialization and is expressed as:

in increasing the level of functional capabilities of his body,

specific and general performance,

in the achieved degree of perfection of sports skills and abilities.

Preparedness- this is a complex result of the physical, technical, tactical, mental training of an athlete.

Sports uniform- this is the highest degree of an athlete's preparedness, characterized by his ability to simultaneously implement various aspects of an athlete's training in competitive activity (technical, physical, tactical, mental). Sports form is associated with the manifestation of a complex perception of competitive activity in the chosen sport: “sense of water”, “sense of ice”, “sense of the ball”, etc.

General physical training (GPP) is a process of improving motor physical qualities aimed at a comprehensive and harmonious physical development person.

Physical fitness contributes to an increase in functionality, overall performance, is the basis (base) for special training and achievement of high results in a chosen field of activity or sport. The following tasks can be assigned to the OFP:

to achieve a harmonious development of the muscles of the body and the corresponding strength of the muscles;

acquire general, endurance;

increase the speed of performing various movements, general speed abilities;

increase the mobility of the main joints, muscle elasticity;

improve dexterity in a wide variety of (domestic, labor, sports) activities, the ability to coordinate simple and complex movements;

learn to perform movements without undue stress, master the ability to relax.

Special and sports physical training

Special physical training is the process of educating physical qualities, which ensures the predominant development of those motor abilities that are necessary for a particular sports discipline (sport) or type of work.

Special physical training is very diverse in its focus, but all its types can be reduced to two main groups:

sports training;

professional-applied physical training.

Sports training (training) is the expedient use of knowledge, means, methods and conditions, which makes it possible to directly influence the development of an athlete and provide the necessary degree of readiness for sports achievements.

At present, sport is developing in two directions, which have a different target orientation - mass sport and sport of higher achievements.

The purpose of sports training in the field of mass sports is to improve health, improve physical condition and active recreation.

The goal of training in the field of elite sports is to achieve the highest possible results in competitive activities.

The structure of an athlete's preparedness includes technical, physical, tactical and mental elements.

Technical readiness should be understood as the degree of mastering by an athlete of the technique of the system of movements of a particular sport. It is closely related to the physical, mental and tactical capabilities of the athlete, as well as to the conditions of the external environment. Changes in the rules of the competition, the use of other sports equipment significantly affects the content of the technical preparedness of athletes.

The structure of technical readiness always contains the so-called basic and additional movements.

The basic ones include movements and actions that form the basis of the technical equipment of this sport. Development basic movements is mandatory for an athlete specializing in this sport.

Additional include minor movements and actions, elements of individual movements that do not violate its rationality and at the same time are characteristic of the individual characteristics of this athlete.

Physical fitness is the capabilities of the functional systems of the body. It reflects the necessary level of development of those physical qualities on which competitive success in a particular sport depends.

The tactical readiness of an athlete depends on how much he masters the means of sports tactics (for example, the technical methods necessary to implement the chosen tactics), its types (offensive, defensive, counterattacking) and forms (individual, group, team).

Mental preparedness is heterogeneous in its structure. It is possible to distinguish two relatively independent and at the same time interrelated aspects in it: volitional and special mental preparedness.

Volitional preparedness is associated with such qualities as purposefulness, determination and courage, perseverance and perseverance, endurance and self-control, independence and initiative.

In the structure of the athlete's special mental readiness, it is necessary to single out those aspects that can be improved in the course of sports training:

resistance to stressful situations of training and competitive activity;

kinesthetic and visual perceptions motor actions and environment;

the ability to mental regulation of movements, ensuring effective muscle coordination;

the ability to perceive, organize and process information under time pressure;

the ability to form anticipatory reactions in the structures of the brain, programs that precede real action.

In modern sports, the meaning technical training is continuously increasing. The strongest athletes in the world have relatively equal training. Consequently, even a small advantage in any of its sections can be decisive for victory. It is in this respect that technical training provides athletes with the greatest reserves, since its practical implementation and scientific justification are still far from possible limits (D. D. Donskoy, 1966, 1967, 1975; V. M. Dyachkov, 1967; D. D Donskoy, V. M. Zatsiorsky, 1979; L. P. Matveev, A. L. Novikov, 1976; V. S. Keller, 1967; V. K. Balsevich, 1975, etc.).

The high level of technical preparedness of an athlete not only ensures the fruitful use of the potential of his motor skills in conditions of intense competition, but also creates opportunities for intensifying the training process, increasing its quality level (V. K. Balsevich, 1975).

The technical training of an athlete is understood as teaching him the basics of the technique of actions performed in competitions or serving as a means of training and improving selected forms. sports equipment. Like any expedient training, the technical training of an athlete is a process of managing the formation of knowledge, skills and abilities. It is covered by general principles didactics and didactic provisions of the methodology physical education. Features of sports and technical training are determined by the fact that it is built according to the patterns of achieving mastery in the chosen sport (L. P. Novikov, A. D. Novikov, 1976; L. P. Matveev, 1977; G. D. Ashmarin, 1979 and etc.).

The central task of sports and technical training is considered to be the need to form such skills for performing competitive actions that would allow the athlete to most effectively use his abilities in competitions and ensure the steady improvement of technical skills in the process of many years of playing sports. This formulation includes a number of tasks: knowledge of the theoretical foundations of sports equipment; modeling of individual forms of technology; formation of skills and abilities; updating the forms of technology; creation of new forms of technology, etc. (L. P. Matveev, A. D. Novikov, 1976).

All this applies mainly to special sports and technical training. General technical training consists in replenishing the fund of skills that are a prerequisite for the formation of technical skills in the chosen sport, and also includes training in the technique of exercises chosen as additional means of physical training. In addition to mastering skills, an essential aspect of this section of training should be education coordination abilities on which sports and technical improvement depends to a decisive extent.

In the materials of the 1st All-Union Conference on the problems of sports equipment, two factors for the growth of sports achievements were noted: 1) improvement of teaching and training methods, which makes it possible to reveal the reserve biological capabilities of the athlete's body; 2) improvement of technical skill, which allows to maximally rationalize the movements of the athlete, which is manifested in greater expediency, efficiency and economy of movements.

It is also noted that in sports characterized by a large variability of actions, in the process of training, the conditions in which technical techniques are improved should be brought closer to the constantly changing conditions of fights and game actions. At the same time, the individualization of technique among highly qualified athletes is important, but nevertheless, the basis of each technique should be common.

There are three stages of technical training:

1st stage coincides with the first half of the preparatory period. In technical training, this is the stage "construction" models of new technique, improvement of prerequisites, learning of individual movements, formation of their general coordination basis. In the literature, this stage is called "search" (V. M. Dyakov, 1967, etc.).

2nd stage - "stabilization". At this stage, technical training is aimed at in-depth development and consolidation of integral skills of competitive actions as components of a sports form. It covers the second half of the preparatory period.

3rd stage - "adaptation". At this stage, technical training is built within the framework of direct pre-competitive training and is aimed at improving the acquired skills, increasing the range of their expedient variability and the degree of "reliability" in relation to the competition conditions. This stage covers the competitive period.

If it is necessary to restructure firmly acquired skills with deep-rooted technical errors or shortcomings, it is necessary to lengthen the first stage, first introducing a “readaptation” stage, when these skills are not used in action, which contributes to the “extinguishment” of unwanted conditioned reflex connections under the influence of time (K.T. Bulochko, 1973). The formation of motor skills requires a solid mastery of the basic structure of the technique of techniques and its variants based on the development of leading motor qualities.

Speaking about the methodology of training in sports, I. G. Ozolin (1975) believes that it is necessary to facilitate the first steps only to the extent that the trainees do not create an underestimated idea of ​​their capabilities, so that what they have achieved does not seem to them the limit. Facilitation of learning is necessary to create a correct idea of ​​the movement, as well as to form the ability to perform it in a simplified form. Methods of pedagogical stimulation, interest, game method and competitive. One should not wait for the complete mastery of the technique, it is necessary, if possible, to compete in its elements. The author advises to be careful about the use of simulators that facilitate the training of sports equipment, since this may adversely affect the conscious coordination of movements and the manifestation of physical and mental qualities.

D. D. Donskoy (1957) and other authors are of the opinion that special attention should be paid to initial training, since shortcomings in the first stages of technical training are extremely difficult to correct even when a high level of perfection is achieved.

The long-term process of technical training of an athlete is usually divided into two stages - "basic" technical training and in-depth technical improvement (L.P. Matveev, 1977, etc.).

M. M. Bogen (1981) identifies four levels of assimilation educational material: 1) formation of knowledge about the object (motor skills and abilities are not formed); 2) the ability to solve a separate motor task; 3) the ability to find more perfect variants of a motor action; 4) the ability to design new ways to solve motor problems.

Yu. V. Verkhoshansky (1972) is of the opinion that the study of human movements in terms of the formation and improvement of sports equipment expands our capabilities in the active management of this process and provides a basis for an objective solution to the issue of selecting means and methods of training. In general, both contribute to the implementation of the principle of optimal control many years of preparation athletes.

According to A. V. Vorobyov (1972), the modern training methodology and the technique of performing exercises are in the closest relationship and interdependence. Evolution in the technique of performing exercises leads to a change in the training methodology and vice versa.

The main means of technical training (L.P. Matveev, 1977, etc.) are considered to be preparatory exercises that have a structural commonality with competitive actions, training forms of competitive exercises and competitive exercises themselves with all their inherent features, and additional - general preparatory exercises.

V. I. Shaposhnikova, V. F. Dorofeev, R. V. Miroshnikova, E. S. Ulrikh (1967) believe that the right skills must be instilled from the very beginning and especially carefully select and apply special and imitation exercises that play a significant role. role in the formation of technology. If a sufficiently wide range of means is used to improve the GPP of adolescents, then all special exercises should not be used when teaching the technique of a particular sport. The external similarity in the form of movements does not always correspond to the main content of the technique being studied, therefore, simulation exercises used in artificial conditions should be approached with extreme caution. At initial training, the method of dissected training should be widely used, it is advisable to study several techniques in parallel in one lesson, because in this case the coordination capabilities of those involved expand, the mastery of motor skills occurs in more short time, increases the possibility of their tactical use.

Beginners should be taught elementary, simplified, feasible techniques. But at the same time, it is important that the elementary technique does not distort its motor foundations, which will allow, without retraining, to gradually move on to a complex, perfect technique for performing exercises. Training should be carried out according to the scheme: first, the athlete creates motor representations, then attempts to actually fulfill it follow, then, as the learned is repeated, a skill is acquired, which later turns into a motor skill. Improvement of technique is carried out by changing the form of movements and increasing the level of development of motor and volitional qualities(N. G. Ozolin, 1970).

According to L.P. Matveev and A.D. Novikov (1976) and other authors, the details of the technique in most cases depend on the individual morphological and functional characteristics of athletes. Therefore, blind copying of the individual technique of outstanding athletes can adversely affect sports results. The technique of high-class athletes is highly stable and at the same time flexible adaptability to changing environmental conditions.

A. G. Drizhika (1967) in his research came to the conclusion that the less information about the movement is perceived by the analyzers, the less it is realized, the more stable and faster the skills can be formed, but less perfect and "inert". This is consistent with the judgments of I.P. Pavlov that “any system of conditioned reflex connections is established faster and easier with less variability of external influences” (I.P. Pavlov, 1947). Based on the foregoing, it can be concluded that each training session should repeat the passed stage of the formation of this motor skill every time in order to avoid the development of "inertness". The sequence of tasks training sessions should be something like this:

1. Expansion of the motor horizons of those involved in the boundaries of this coordination of movements: a) the implementation of imitation and lead-up exercises that contribute to the improvement of the technique of the type; b) performing exercises that directly improve the technique of the chosen type.

2. Expansion of the functional capabilities of those involved in the boundaries of this coordination of movements.

3. Modeling of optimal and maximum functionality within the boundaries of the selected view.

IN early age least of all, it is necessary to take care of the strong consolidation of skills, and more to expand the motor horizons of those involved by mastering a large number of the most diverse movements in terms of coordination structure at different tempos and with different speed-strength characteristics. At the same time, frequent repetitions of narrowly limited standardized forms of movements should be avoided in order to increase the plasticity of the nervous system.

V. S. Keller (1967) is of the opinion that the development of a dynamic stereotype in martial arts, in the form of a stable integral system of a sports duel, is a very difficult task and, most importantly, inexpedient. Motor skills should be formed not for the entire system of a sports duel, but for individual, basic techniques used in complex acts of sportsmen's activity. A holistic system of actions of martial artists is built from the skills of the main techniques each time in accordance with the situation of the competition. When teaching techniques, the coach must consistently give tasks to perform them in a variety of tactical situations, gradually turning techniques into simple, and then complex combat actions of a sports duel.

The author proposes to call the specialized positions and movements of athletes in martial arts taken outside the tactical situation "techniques", and the technique or several techniques used to solve a specific tactical problem - "action".

initial actions (fighting stances);

movement (methods of movement of athletes);

basic movements (attacks, defenses, flips, etc.).

The actions of athletes are classified, based on the general tactical task, as actions of preparation, attack, defense. Such a distinction between the concept of reception and action facilitates the teaching of technique and tactics.

The author recommends training in technology and its improvement in combat sports taking into account the specific conditions of the activity of athletes, namely, martial arts with an opposing opponent. Based on this, he offers specific ways of learning skills and developing the ability to apply these skills in a sports duel:

training without an opponent,

with a hypothetical opponent

with a partner

with the enemy.

Training without an opponent is used to master the basics of technology, improve it, to teach conscious analysis of one's own movements, the ability to control technology.

Training with a conditional opponent(a stuffed animal in wrestling, a target in fencing, a pear in boxing, etc.) - to develop the ability of an athlete to determine the distance to the enemy, assimilate muscle sensations, and develop techniques. When training with a conditional opponent, two new points appear:

a) the action of the visual analyzer, which helps to correctly determine the distance to the enemy;

b) muscle sensations associated with contact with the enemy. The demand for accuracy of movements and coordination increases.

The third way - training with a partner used to study and consolidate the technique of techniques and actions. It develops the ability for meaningful, expedient actions, helps to understand the interdependence of one's actions on the actions of a partner, and is predominantly technical and tactical in nature.

Training with the enemy It is used to improve techniques and actions, taking into account the individual characteristics of athletes, to develop detailed techniques, to improve moral and volitional qualities, to develop the ability to use one's abilities in various conditions of a sports duel and to turn techniques into expedient combat actions.

Using technical means opportunities are created for a better determination of the qualitative aspects of the movement performed on the basis of an artificial expansion of the athlete's ability to evaluate controlled characteristics (IP Ratov, 1972).

According to V. K. Balsevich (1975), the use of technical means facilitates the task of conducting mass training in movements, subject to even greater individualization of pedagogical influences on each student. With the use of technical means, the possibility of individualized pedagogical corrections and the setting of specific tasks for each student is greatly facilitated.

When mastering the technique in martial arts, it is necessary to strictly adhere to the position: each “technical so” must have its own “tactical why”. This means that when studying a technique, when individualizing it, it is necessary to proceed not only from the purely biomechanical expediency of a technique, but also to take into account its future tactical features, capabilities, and variability in the use of a technique in a particular combat action (N. A. Bernshtein, 1965 ).

In the process of teaching sports technique, various authors distinguish phases that can be considered relatively isolated: V. S. Farfel (1960) notes the physiological phases: irradiation of the excitation process; concentration of excitation due to the development of the process of inhibition; stabilization and automation; L. B. Chkhaidze, N. A. Bernstein (1947) distinguish regulatory phases: neutralization of reactive forces that interfere with the observance of the necessary spatial parameters of movements; the release of a number of degrees of freedom, the reactive forces of which hinder movements least of all; complete release of the required degrees of freedom.

VD Maznichenko (1964) notes five stages in the formation of a motor skill: 1) obtaining the first idea of ​​a motor action and forming a mindset for teaching it; 2) the initial ability to perform a movement in a "rough" form; 3) the initial skill of the perfect performance of a motor action; 4) complete skill education; 5) achievement of a changeable skill.

K. Meinel (1960) distinguishes three stages of learning: mastering the process in a rough form; the appearance of fine coordination of movements; consolidation and adaptation to changing conditions, stabilization of movement.

M. Ya. Gorkin (1953), D. Harre (1971) give guidelines for teaching the technique of physical exercises: it is necessary to immediately teach rational technique; great attention should be paid to theoretical studies with athletes in order to ensure a conscious attitude towards learning movements; it is necessary to create a high level of special physical qualities in order to exclude technical errors arising due to insufficient physical prerequisites, to provide such conditions for performing an exercise so that it is easy to determine any deviations from the parameters of an expedient solution of a motor task.

In the structure of teaching techniques and actions in the types of martial arts, K. T. Bulochko (1972) distinguishes three phases: the 1st phase includes familiarization and learning; 2nd - consolidation and improvement of technology; 3rd - application in competition conditions. According to each phase, the author considers tasks, means and methods.

When learning techniques classical wrestling O.P. Khromov (1963) offers two schemes: for teaching simple techniques and complex ones, which differ in that when teaching complex techniques, in addition to the holistic method, it is also dissected. At the same time, they are used in both schemes of the exercise: 1st with a non-resisting partner or with incomplete resistance; 2nd - with a partner who creates favorable conditions for the reception.

A variety of motor actions are formed during a person's life under the influence of various factors. Optimization of this process is achieved in conditions of rationally constructed training. Schematically, this can be represented as a sequential transition from knowledge and ideas about an action to the ability to perform it, and then from skill to skill. In any action, three parts (combined functional components) can be distinguished: indicative, actually executive and control (M. Ya. Galperin, 1954, etc.), which are really inseparable from each other, are simultaneously presented in the process of its implementation.

The physiological structure that unites them is what in modern physiology is usually called the “functional system” of a behavioral act (P.K. Anokhin, 1948, 1975). This means, as is known, an integral set of functional mechanisms and processes, which develops during and as a result of building an action with the leading role of the higher parts of the central nervous system and ensures the consolidation of the functions of all body systems involved in its implementation (including the physiological mechanisms of action programming, efferent and afferent connections in movement control, comparison of action parameters with a given program, detection of mismatches and action correction) (Ya. M. Kots, 1982).

The meaningful construction of an action begins with the directed formation of its orienting part as the orienting basis of the action (OOB), which plays the role of its program. OOD includes a general logical project of action, based on the essence of the task being solved, and the main reference points (GPO) of the program for its implementation, i.e., more or less clearly defined ideas about the main points of the action, the operations included in it and the conditions for its implementation.

As a result of the formation of a motor action, an initial motor skill arises. It is one of the typical forms of realization of a person's motor abilities, which is expressed in the ability to perform a motor action on the basis of non-automated purposeful operations. Among the distinguishing features of the initial motor skills are:

constant concentration of attention in the process of action on its constituent private operations;

relative non-standard parameters and the result of the action during its reproduction, excessive variability in the technique of movements, especially under the influence of confounding factors;

dismemberment or little pronounced unity of operations, resulting in excessive prolongation of actions in time.

Motor skill and motor skill are, as it were, successive steps on the way to the formation of a motor action. As the action is repeatedly reproduced, the operations included in it become gradually well-established and habitual, and the connections between them become strong, guaranteeing the natural fusion of movements, there is no need for constant concentration of attention on a number of particular moments of the action that require directed awareness, the contribution of motor automatisms to actions taken. As a result, the motor skill is automated - it turns into a motor skill. Automation of movements is the main hallmark motor skill.

It follows that a motor skill is a form of realization of motor abilities that arises on the basis of automation of a motor skill. A rationally formed motor skill is characterized by an optimal ratio of the functions of consciousness and automatism in the control of movements, in which the action as a whole is directed by consciousness, and compound operations are brought to some degree automation.

Together with the automation of movements, a kind of stereotyping of them takes place according to a number of important parameters and qualitative features. This is expressed, in particular, in a relatively standard reproduction of the spatial, temporal, dynamic and rhythmic parameters of the movement technique when the action is repeated under the same conditions, as well as in maintaining the given overall effectiveness of the action when it is performed under changing conditions.

According to M. M. Bogen (1985, 1995), learning to motor actions, which in this aspect can be considered as a condition for survival, appears in the simplest forms with the emergence of life, becoming more complex and improving with the evolution of living beings.

A person begins to learn motor actions from the moment of birth, repeating the phylogenetic way of learning in ontogenesis: at first, movements are organized spontaneously and chaotically, then - more and more meaningfully, purposefully, under the influence from outside, at first - parental, and later - other people, and that’s it. more - society. Society is interested in effective learning, since the well-being of society is determined by the well-being of its members, and the latter - by the ability to solve life's problems, and ultimately - by learning. This also determines the society's demand for the education system: to teach everyone, to teach effectively, to teach quickly.

The higher the level of development of society, the higher its requirements for the quality of education, the more valued teacher's qualifications. With a good teacher, students learn the material faster and more efficiently, he can also teach less gifted students.

The effectiveness of training is assessed by the results of practical activities. Stable efficiency is more often achieved in activities with a standard program. In activities with an unstable program and changing conditions, such as sports games and martial arts, where success depends on the ability to act in rapidly changing situations, the stable effectiveness of learning outcomes is much less common, moreover, extremely rare, rather as an exception to general rule. To find out the teaching methodology, the masters carefully analyze the movements: with the help of advanced instruments, they record the movements and their characteristics, and then use the analysis data to teach others. The idea of ​​training is simple: to achieve similarity, and even better - full compliance with the movements of the master in all recorded characteristics. To achieve the goal, it is recommended to use training devices that allow you to quickly compare the model and real characteristics of movements and make appropriate corrections to the movements of the student (Zinchenko T. N. et al. 1978; Krogius N. V., 1981). The trainee achieves the desired effect: he learns to more or less accurately reproduce the reference movement. However, "repeat" does not mean "master". Copying does not produce mastery.

N. A. Bernshtein (1947) noted: movements are corrections. Mastery is manifested in the accuracy and timeliness of corrections that ensure the adaptation of the action to fluctuations in its external situation, on the one hand, and to fluctuations in one's own internal structure (the mutual arrangement of body parts, the ratio of efforts in size and direction) - on the other. If you wish, you can copy a motor action, more precisely, its observed picture: it is impossible to copy corrections - they are inaccessible to the observer and meaningless as an object of copying due to their purely private nature. The explanation of corrections as a phenomenon of motor activity is generally impossible from the standpoint of the theory of the conditioned reflex concept of the nature of motor acts, it is possible only if the meaning of the activity and the purpose of the action are recognized as the main regulators of the action, and orientation in the situation and in the process of constructing the action is mandatory, although and imperceptible, part of the action.

Having shown the role of the “image of the necessary future” (in other words, the role of the goal) in the formation of a motor action, N. A. Bernshtein outlined the direction of an in-depth study of the psychological structure, which is leading in relation to its physiological structure. Continuing the development of this concept, P. Ya. Galperin (1954) deciphers the psychological mechanisms of the formation of action, generally calling them "the orienting basis of action." The formation of the OOD always precedes the execution and includes quite a lot of relatively complex operations, which allows us to speak of orienting activity as a necessary component of the construction of a motor action. This activity begins with understanding the meaning, i.e., understanding what the result of the action is for. Thus, the formulation of the requirement of a motor task, the choice of an action, the analysis of the situation, the determination of the composition of operations are the necessary actions (operations) of the orienting activity (action).

Each action and all the operations included in it require precise control of the body for its implementation. Therefore, orienting activity includes the design of appropriate efforts, trajectories, duration and rhythm of movements that coordinate the movements of the body and its parts with the requirements of the situation of activity.

Particular attention should be paid to the problem of identifying essential guidelines in the situation of action (when it comes to orientation in the situation of action) and guidelines for regulating the action (when it comes to building the action itself). The ability to navigate in the situation of action and in the sensations of the dynamics of one's own body are the decisive conditions for the successful solution of motor tasks. In special studies, it was found that in the orientation activity, not all elements of the situation are analyzed, but only its significant features (Bernshtein N.A., 1947; Bogen M.M., 1985).

The context of the meaning of the motor action allows us to single out the essential features of the action situation in the conditions of the motor task. For each type of motor task, these essential features are invariant: although specific situations differ in details, they can be distinguished in a theoretical analysis. It is they who determine the essence of the situation and the choice of the composition of operations that ensure the success of the action. The same can be said about the regulation of motor action, the requirements for its construction. Theoretical analysis makes it possible to identify the main conditions for optimizing an action (requirements of technology), and methodical analysis - a minimum of conditions, the fulfillment of which ensures the optimal structure and characteristics of actions. These essential landmarks are called “main reference points” (Bashlykov Yu. I., 1973; Bernshtein N. A., 1947; Krogius N. V., 1981), since they are controlled consciously, the subject relies on these points of concentration , building and adjusting action. The organization of the action around these points occurs unconsciously, which corresponds to the indication of N. A. Bernstein about the inappropriateness of the intervention of consciousness in the work lower levels building movements (Bashlykov Yu. I., 1973).

It can be assumed that the formation of a motor skill occurs in two stages. At the first stage, when the basic skills are laid, the school of movements in the chosen type of activity, special attention should be paid to the formation of orientation skills in the internal orienting field, in other words, to the ability to control the strength, speed, direction of one's own movements. At the second stage, when the student begins to solve more complex motor tasks that require coordination of movements with changing conditions of the situation of actions, attention is transferred to the formation of skills of orienting activity in an external orienting field, in other words, to the ability to widely and adequately vary actions, to achieve an effective solution of motor tasks. in any conditions.

According to V. N. Seluyanov, M. P. Shestakov (1996), N. A. Bernshtein (1947) should certainly be considered the founder of the theory of technical training in sports (TTP). It was he who made the methodological basis of TTP the biomechanics of human movements, the physiology motor activity which included neurophysiology and psychology.

In the essay “On the Construction of Movements”, Bernstein (1947) considers the motor system of vertebrates as a model (system) consisting of a passive part (rigid joints) and an active part (striated muscles with all its equipment). Then he gives a description of the properties of elements (bones, ligaments, tendons, muscles), structural formations - joints, musculoskeletal models, etc.

Thus, N. A. Bernshtein was one of the first biomechanics who put the structure of the musculoskeletal system as the cornerstone of theoretical biomechanics, and used its properties to explain the reasons for a certain organization of motor action.

The modern concept of movement analysis (technique) is associated with the concept of "biomechanism" (Seluyanov, 1993). Modeling of the human musculoskeletal system (ODA) requires the use of the following ideal models of theoretical mechanics: two- or three-dimensional space, time, material point, absolutely rigid body (rod), hinge, kinematic chain, ideal fluid or gas, etc. All of them are used in biomechanics, however, to obtain an adequate model of the ODA, it is necessary to have muscle models. Consequently, the object of biomechanics intersects with the object of theoretical mechanics, but not completely. At each moment of time, the existence of a person in the conditions of the external environment will be represented as a set of biomechanisms.

To build movement (technique) means according to Seluyanov (1993):

1) formulate the purpose of the movement;

2) ask initial conditions, i.e. posture and kinetic indicators;

3) to determine biomechanisms, i.e. ways of converting muscle energy into expedient motor activity;

4) distribute the implementation of biomechanisms in time;

5) to implement the theoretical development of a motor action, however, from this moment on, the biomechanic must give way to a specialist in teaching a person to motor actions.

The theory of technical training borders on the biomechanics of human movements, the physiology of motor activity by N. A. Bernshtein (1966), pedagogy and psychology.

Based on the model of the musculoskeletal system, N. A. Bernshtein (1947, 1966) theoretically developed methods for controlling the model. He suggested that a person can control only internal forces, and reactive and external forces cannot be unambiguously correlated with them. There is a fundamental uncertainty here. The principle of sensory corrections, of course, is true in the case of learning, the formation of skills, however, if there is a skill, with automated control, the logic of sensory corrections does not work (Bogen M. M., 1985). Obviously, within the limits of sensory information entering the CNS (0.120-0.280 s), a large number of sports motor actions (jumps, repulsions, etc.) are performed contrary to logic. A person learns and eventually develops muscle control programs taking into account external and reactive forces, i.e. the musculoskeletal system is a fundamentally controlled system in the case of combining two control methods - automated and with sensory correction.

Physiological concepts of motion control did not set themselves the task of substantiating the patterns of learning motor actions.

In psychology, thanks to the works of L. S. Vygotsky (1956) and A. N. Leontiev (1975), it became possible to study the learning process as an activity. Structural (temporary) components of activity are actions. An action is a process subordinated to the solution of a specific problem, aimed at achieving a goal determined by the nature of motivation. From the point of view of the theory of activity, P. Ya. Galperin (1954) and his colleagues developed a theory of stage-by-stage control of the process of mastering knowledge. The theory of activity formed the basis of the theory of teaching motor actions in sports.

The opinions of most modern theorists agree on the assumption that the main coordination properties of the brain are determined by the topological structure of the network of neurons and the dynamics of the propagation of impulses in this network. It can be argued that at present the neural theory of memory is generally accepted.

The assumptions made by Hebb (1984), which have now become classical, suggest that any mental functions, be it memory, emotions, or thinking, must be due to the activity of neural ensembles. Nerve cells in such ensembles are combined into specific networks. Thus, the objects of TTP are programs (images) of theoretical concepts and motor realizations of purposeful motor actions in the cerebral cortex. The presence and quantitative assessment of their perfection are revealed in the course of motor activity. The subject of the TTP is the patterns of formation of motor skills and abilities.

In accordance with the object and subject of the study, as well as with the logic of the development of theoretical research, the following main tasks of TPP for development can be defined:

speculative and mathematical models of ODA and CNS;

formation methods free programs motor actions;

methods for restructuring programs for arbitrary control of ODE models;

methods of controlling the level of technical readiness, as well as the content of technical training;

technical training planning.

So far, programs that imitate brain activity are not available to the trainer, so he must use speculative models. Such a model may be the block diagram published earlier by Golomazov (1994). The construction of a motor action leads to the formation in the mind of a motor image and a movement program that can be implemented. During the implementation of the program, as a rule, there is a deviation from the specified goal of the movement (image). Therefore, it is necessary to repeat the execution of the program with some preliminary corrections. Those traces in the neural circuit of the passage of impulses, which are repeated from time to time, are fixed in the form of clear spiny formations. Gradually, the most appropriate actions from the point of view of the athlete and his coach are fixed. This contributes to the gradual increase in the accuracy and stability of the execution of the environment. This approach is called the iterative method, which leads to the formation of a basic program.

N. A. Bernshtein’s ideas about the ring nature of action management, about the person’s anticipation of the required future, turned out to be fundamental in the theory of the goal as a conscious image of the anticipated result. Thus, one of the highest integral functions of the human psyche - goal-setting - was placed in the position “from a person”, and thus the functions of realization and formation of individuality were placed in the same position (Dmitriev S.V., 1985).

In the works of D. D. Donskoy (1968), S. V. Dmitriev (1985), the basic principles and means of semantic design and modeling of human motor actions are formulated. Considering the motor actions of an athlete as an object of didactic modeling, SV Dmitriev (1995) pays special attention to the category of goal-setting in its Bernsteinian sense. At the same time, the essential connection of the subject and his activity (actions) is revealed, according to the author, when the leading category in the analysis is the category of the subject.

The main idea of ​​the inherently acmeological principle of feasibility is that each person has a certain physical, mental and spiritual potential and the peaks of his achievements corresponding to this potential are predictable, projectable (Gagin Yu. A., 1994).

According to L.P. Matveev (1977), those forms of movements that were mastered by an athlete at the beginning sports way, cannot completely coincide with the models of technique suitable for the subsequent stages, because the technique of movements is determined by the degree of development of the athlete's physical and mental qualities. In accordance with the changes, the individual technique should also change. And this means that the technical training of an athlete does not have a final path, it is carried out throughout the entire sports activity.

The effectiveness of managing the process of formation and improvement of the technical skills of highly qualified athletes depends to a decisive extent on the development of a system for monitoring its condition. Moreover, urgent information about the current state of the formed technical structure of the exercise acquires initial significance. Traditional methods of verbal and visual learning are supplemented with new ones every year. In most cases, they are associated with the use of specialized hardware devices for the formation of visual representations, programming of movement parameters, urgent objective information in the course of execution and error correction, or physical relief. correct execution actions. When choosing means of urgent information, preference is given to methods associated with visual perception, since switching signaling from the proprioceptive channel to the visual one contributes to the formation of an objective system of self-control based on conscious ideas about the form and results of one’s technical actions (D. D. Donskoy, 1971; V. M. Dyachkov, 1963, I. P. Ratov, 1972, V. S. Rodichenko, 1972, V. S. Farfel, 1968, L. L. Chkhaidze, 1968, L. P. Matveev, 1977, etc. ).

Essay

by discipline: sports theory

subject:

sports and technical training in sports

Plan

1. Tasks and requirements of sports equipment.

2. Means of technical training.

3. Formation of motor skills and abilities.

1. Tasks and requirements of sports equipment

Under technical training one should understand the degree of mastering by an athlete of the system of movements (techniques of a sport), corresponding to the characteristics of this sports discipline and aimed at achieving high sports results.

Main task technical training of an athlete is teaching him the basics of the technique of competitive activity or exercises that serve as means of training, as well as improving the forms of sports technique chosen for the subject of the competition.

In the process of sports and technical training, it is necessary to achieve from the athlete that his technique meets the following requirements :

1. Technique performance is determined by its effectiveness, stability, variability, economy, minimal tactical information content for the opponent.

2. Technique efficiency is determined by its compliance with the tasks to be solved and high end results, compliance with the level of physical, technical, mental fitness.

3. Technique stability associated with its noise immunity, independence from the conditions, the functional state of the athlete.

Modern training and especially competitive activity characterized by a large number of confounding factors. These include active resistance from opponents, progressive fatigue, unusual refereeing style, unusual competition venue, equipment, unfriendly behavior of fans, etc. An athlete’s ability to perform effective techniques and actions in difficult conditions is the main indicator of stability and largely determines the level of technical preparedness in general.

4. Technique variability is determined by the athlete's ability to prompt correction of motor actions depending on the conditions of the competitive struggle. Experience shows that the desire of athletes to preserve the temporal, dynamic and spatial characteristics of movements in any conditions of competitive struggle does not lead to success. For example, in cyclic types sports, the desire to maintain stable characteristics of movements until the end of the distance leads to a significant decrease in speed. At the same time, compensatory changes in sports technique caused by progressive fatigue allow athletes to maintain or even slightly increase their speed at the finish line.

The variability of technique is even more important in sports with constantly changing situations, an acute time limit for performing motor actions, active opposition from opponents, etc. (martial arts, games, sailing and etc.).

5. Economy of technology characterized by the rational use of energy in the implementation of techniques and actions, the appropriate use of time and space. Other equal conditions the best is the variant of motor actions, which is accompanied by minimal energy consumption, the least stress of the athlete's mental capabilities.

In sports games, martial arts, complex coordination sports, an important indicator of efficiency is the ability of athletes to perform effective action with their small amplitude and the minimum time required for execution.

6. Minimum tactical information content of equipment for rivals is an important indicator of performance in sports and martial arts. Only that technique can be perfect here, which allows you to mask tactical plans and act unexpectedly. Therefore, a high level of technical readiness provides for the ability of an athlete to perform such movements, which, on the one hand, are quite effective to achieve the goal, and on the other hand, do not have clearly expressed informative details that unmask the tactical plan of the athlete (V.N. Platonov, 1987) .

Conditionally distinguish general technical And special sports and technical preparation.

Tasks of the general technical training consists in expanding the fund of motor skills and abilities (school of movements), as well as in the development of motor-coordinating abilities, which contribute to technical improvement in the chosen sport.

The main task in a special sports and technical training is the formation of such skills and abilities to perform competitive actions that allow the athlete to use his abilities in competitions with the greatest efficiency and ensure the progress of technical mastery in the process of playing sports.

2. Technical training facilities

Means of technical training are general preparatory, specially preparatory and competitive exercises, which must meet the following requirements:

1. Exercises aimed at the formation of competitive actions in parts should not differ in the main structural features from the reproduced parts of the competitive exercise.

2. The order of formation or restructuring of the phases of a competitive exercise depends both on the features of the structure and on the preparedness of the athlete, including his motor experience. The more complex the competitive combination and the individual elements that will be included in it, the more difficult it is then to collect all the divided exercises and form the necessary rhythm of the entire competitive action as a whole.

Within the limits of the phases performed, it is necessary to form and clarify motor tasks, body positions (initial, final), the relative position of the body links, and then the method of transition from the initial to the final position.

3. Regardless of whether the action is learned mainly at once in whole or in parts, the athlete must at the first stage learn to control and correct movements (first visually, then without the participation of vision), for which it is necessary to know the main " checkpoints» in each phase (positions and mutual positions of the links of the motor apparatus).

4. It is advisable to consolidate the skills of divided performance of a competitive exercise if there are no serious obstacles to combining parts into a whole. It depends on how organically they are related to each other. For example, in gymnastic combinations, the danger of excessive consolidation of these elements as separate skills is relatively small, and when isolating the phases of jumps and throws, it is much greater.

5. Successful implementation of tasks for the formation of a new technique of competitive actions and the transformation of old skills at the first stage (the stage of initial learning) is determined by the use of methodological approaches and techniques that facilitate the technically correct performance of the exercise, especially when they differ in coordination complexity and are associated with the maximum efforts of speed-strength character.

In addition to the methods of dividing the exercise into parts and the direct physical assistance of the trainer, the following are used:

1) technical means:

a) means of forming and clarifying ideas about movements in the minds of students;

b) means introducing into the learning environment (various landmarks);

c) means of urgent and extra-urgent information about the movements being performed;

d) simulators used for teaching movements;

e) simulators for improving motor actions and developing special motor qualities;

e) funds providing insurance.

2) lightweight training equipment and special equipment: hanging lounges, jump bridges, trampolines, inclined paths, running, rowing and swimming treadmills.

3. Formation of motor skills and abilities

In the process of technical training of an athlete, a lot of painstaking work is carried out on the assimilation of knowledge, the formation of motor skills and abilities.

Motor skill- this is the ability to perform motor actions based on certain knowledge about its technique, the presence of appropriate motor prerequisites, with a significant concentration of attention of those involved, to build a given movement pattern. In the process of formation of motor skills, the search for the optimal variant of movement occurs with the leading role of consciousness. Repeated repetition of motor actions leads to gradual automation of movements and motor skills turns into a skill characterized by such a degree of mastery of technique, in which the control of movements is automated, and the actions are highly reliable.

In the process of sports training, motor skills have an auxiliary function. It can appear in two cases:

1) when it is necessary to master lead-up exercises for subsequent learning of more complex motor actions;

2) when it is necessary to achieve easy learning techniques of the corresponding motor actions, the formation of skills is a prerequisite for the subsequent formation of motor skills.

Formed motor skills are stabilized when the system of necessary influences is reproduced frequently and relatively stereotypically. The main provisions for stabilizing sports skills are as follows:

1. Stabilization of a skill is the easier, the more standard in the process of repeated performance of an action its fixed features are reproduced. This implies the rule: at the beginning of the consolidation of the skills of the holistic performance of actions, it is necessary, if possible, to exclude factors that can cause deviations from the optimal parameters of the movement technique (complicating environmental conditions, fatigue, mental tension) and create conditions that reduce the likelihood of such deviations by regulating loads and rest, distribution exercises in the structure of classes that contribute to the consolidation of skills, the use of appropriate technical means, simulators, leading devices, standardization of environmental conditions.

Special physical training

general physical preparation

The structure of physical training

PREPARATION (GPP and SFP)

THE CONCEPT OF GENERAL AND SPECIAL PHYSICAL

LECTURE 5

PLAN:

1. The structure of physical training

2. General physical training

3. Special physical training

3.1. sports training

3.2. Professionally applied physical training

PHYSICAL TRAINING is the process of forming motor skills and abilities, developing physical ability person.

Preparation(process) forms preparedness:

PHYSICAL FITNESS - the level of formation of motor skills and abilities, the development of physical abilities.

There are general physical training (GPP) and special physical training (SFP).

GENERAL PHYSICAL TRAINING is the process of forming motor skills and abilities, improving physical abilities aimed at the comprehensive and harmonious physical development of a person.

OFP tasks:

1) Health promotion.

2) Ensuring comprehensive and harmonious physical development.

3) Creation of a basis (base) for special physical training.

The means of physical fitness are physical exercises that have a general effect on the human body. In particular, these include: running, skiing, swimming, cycling, moving and sport games, weight training, etc.

Versatile physical development contributes to a better adaptability of the body to changing environmental conditions.

SPECIAL PHYSICAL TRAINING is the process of forming motor skills and abilities, developing the physical abilities of a person, taking into account the type of his activity (labor or sports).

SFP ensures the selective development of individual muscle groups that carry the main load when performing exercises specialized for a particular sport or profession.

The types of SFP are sports training and professional-applied physical training.

SPORTS TRAINING (training) is a purposeful educational process of training an athlete to achieve specific sports results.

Currently, it is customary to distinguish between elite sports and mass sports:

The goal of elite sport- to achieve the highest possible results in competitive activities.

The goal of mass sports- improve health, improve physical condition, promote active recreation.

The structure of sports training is identical in elite sports and in mass sports.

Components of sports training:

· Technical training- the process of mastering the technique of movements of a particular sport by an athlete.

The structure of technical training includes basic and additional movements:

The basic ones include the movements and actions that form the basis of this sport.

Additional movements include minor movements and actions that do not violate rationality, are characteristic and necessary for a particular athlete.

· Physical training as part of sports training, in turn, is also divided into general physical training of an athlete and special physical training.

In this case OFP is the process of comprehensive development of physical abilities, not specific to the chosen sport, but one way or another determining the success of sports activities.

Example:

in the process of general physical training of gymnasts, work is underway on the development of all abilities, but more attention is paid to the development of coordination and flexibility, less to the development of general endurance. The runners on long distances On the contrary, a significant place is given to exercises for the development of general endurance, less - flexibility and coordination.

The athlete's means of physical fitness are exercises from their own and other sports.

SFP sent on the development of physical abilities that meet the specifics of the chosen sport. At the same time, it is focused on the maximum possible degree of their development.

Tasks of the SFP:

1) The development of physical abilities necessary for a particular sport.

2) Increasing the functionality of organs and systems that determine the success of an athlete in a chosen sport.

3) Development of the ability to manifest the existing functional potential in specific conditions of competitive activity.

Example:

Swimmers have a maximum oxygen consumption (MOC) at standard loads in laboratory conditions averages 70 ml/kg/min, and when swimming at a competitive speed - 46 ml/kg/min, i.e. only 65% ​​of the IPC.

4) Formation of the physique of athletes, taking into account the requirements of a particular sports discipline.

Example:

Physique indicators (height, weight, constitution) of athletes who specialize in running at different distances (eg, short, long), as a rule, differ significantly from each other.

Main athlete's means of SFP are competitive and special-preparatory exercises.

The ratio of the means of general physical therapy and SPT in training depends on the tasks to be solved, the age of the athlete, his qualifications and individual characteristics, as well as on the type of sport, stages and periods of the training process, etc.

Rationally organized physical training allows an athlete to achieve such a level of preparedness (development of physical abilities) that is necessary for competitive success in a particular sport.

· tactical training- mastery process sports tactics and the formation of tactical skills in the chosen sport.

Tactics is a set of forms and methods of conducting wrestling in competition conditions.

Distinguish:

Individual tactics;

group tactics;

Command tactics.

A highly qualified athlete must be able to impose his tactics on the opponent during the competition.

Example:

When running for middle distances, a runner with more high level sprinting qualities will strive to slow down the entire distance in order to achieve victory with a short, quick finishing spurt.

· Psychological preparation- the process of formation of such mental functions, processes, states and personality traits that provide a successful solution to the problems of training and participation in competitions.

Psychological training is usually divided into general and special.

General psychological preparation is aimed at the development and improvement of mental functions and qualities in athletes, which are necessary for successful classes sports in general. This type of psychological training is also called moral-volitional training. This includes the development of:

Purposefulness (the ability to clearly define immediate and long-term goals and objectives);

Decisiveness and courage (reasonable risk combined with thoughtfulness of decisions);

Perseverance (desire to achieve the intended goal);

Self-control and endurance (the ability to control your thoughts and actions in conditions of emotional arousal);

initiative;

Independence.

Special psychological training It is aimed at developing and improving in athletes exactly those mental functions and qualities that are necessary for successful practice in the chosen sport.

Example:

A) for those involved in sports games, the necessary psychological qualities are: sociability, the ability to cooperate, heuristic abilities (anticipation, tactical instinct);

B) for gymnastics - artistry, sensory-motor qualities, self-control;

C) for those involved in martial arts - courage, decision-making ability, mental endurance, heuristic abilities, sensory-motor qualities.

In elite sports, there are also psychological preparation, aimed mainly at the formation of an athlete's psychological readiness to participate in a particular competition.